mirnm  OF  THE  mmm 

AND  COOLEY 


SHELTER  AND   CLOTHING 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


ELLEN  H.  RICHARDS 

(1842-1911) 


For  forty  years  leader  in  the  Home  Economics  Movement 


SHELTER  AND 


A   TEXTBOOK 

OF    THE 

HOUSEHOLD    ARTS 


BY 
HELEN    KINNE 

PROFESSOR    OF    HOUSEHOLD   ARTS   EDUCATION 
AND 

ANNA    M.   COOLEY,  B.S. 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF    HOUSEHOLD    ARTS    EDUCATION 
TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


gorfe 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


- 


COPYRIGHT,  1913, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  1913.     Reprinted 
September,  1913  ;  January,  June  August,  1914. 


FDUCATtON  DEFT, 


J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  — Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  and  the  companion  volume,  Foods  and  Household 
Management  by  the  same  authors,  are  intended  for  the  girl 
pursuing  any  type  of  high  school  or  normal  school  course, 
as  well  as  for  the  home  maker.  They  cover  the  course  in 
household  arts  for  the  general  high  school. 

The  authors  feel  that  household  arts  in  high  schools  should 
not  be  confined  to  problems  in  cooking  and  sewing.  They  are 
only  a  part  of  the  study  of  home  making.  The  questions  of 
home  organisation,  management,  care,  repair,  home  sanitation, 
and  decoration,  are  also  important,  and  should  find  a  place  in 
the  household  arts  course  of  study  in  every  high  school. 

The  question  of  what  to  include  in  a  general  textbook  has 
been  a  difficult  one  for  the  authors  to  answer  because  of  the 
scope  of  the  field  of  household  arts.  It  has  been  planned  so 
as  to  give  the  most  helpful  suggestions  in  relation  to  each 
subject. 

This  book  deals  with  the  home,  its  ideals  in  organization, 
its  sanitation,  decoration,  and  furnishing ;  also  with  the  ques- 
tions of  textiles,  sewing,  and  dressmaking.  Foods  and  House- 
hold Management  treats  of  the  study  of  foods,  their  manufacture, 
composition,  preparation,  and  serving,  and  the  home  problems 
of  management,  accounts,  buying,  housewifery,  care  and  repair 
of  household  furnishings. 

The  authors  wish  to  express  thanks  to  those  who  have  read 
and  criticized  the  manuscript :  Professor  Warner,  of  Teachers 
College,  for  the  chapters  on  home  decoration  'and  domestic 
architecture ;  Miss  Laura  I.  Baldt  and  Miss  Helen  Donovan, 
of  Teachers  College,  for  the  parts  on  sewing,  garment  making, 


Vi    •    •    '•  ;•'•'  •'..'  PREFACE 


iiiicl  'dressmaking^-'  Professor  Fales,  of  Teachers  College,  and 
Miss  Grace  Nagle,  for  criticism  of  the  chapter  on  history  of 
costume;  Mrs.  William  Buchner,  for  the  chapter  on  the  im- 
portance of  dress ;  Mrs.  Ellen  Beers  McGowan,  of  Teachers 
College,  and  Miss  Charlotte  Waite,  of  Kalaraazoo  Vocational 
School,  Michigan,  for  reading  parts  in  relation  to  textiles; 
Professor  Vulte,  of  Teachers  College,  for  criticism  of  the  chap- 
ter on  house  sanitation ;  Mrs.  Evelyn  Tobey,  for  the  chapter 
on  millinery ;  the  students  of  the  costume  design  class  at 
Teachers  College,  for  the  sketches  in  the  chapters  on  dress. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

THIS  book  is  arranged  topically.  It  is  not,  however,  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  present  the  subjects  in  the  order  outlined. 
The  class  discussions  and  exercises  in  relation  to  home  ideals, 
house  sanitation,  and  decoration  may  be  followed  in  sequence, 
while  the  study  in  textiles,  sewing,  and  dressmaking  may  run 
parallel  if  desired.  Most  teachers  prefer  to  outline  their 
courses  in  Household  Arts  for  the  year  in  some  such  way, 
adapting  the  subjects  to  the  needs  of  the  girls,  and  arranging 
the  topics  so  that  there  is  sequence  in  the  work  presented  dur- 
ing the  four  years  of  the  high  school  course.  Such  teachers 
should  be  familiar  with  all  the  subjects  offered  in  both  volumes 
of  this  series,  Shelter  and  Clothing  and  Foods  and  Household 
Management,  and  should  select  for  daily  study  those  parts  that 
bear  on  the  work  of  the  school  course  for  each  year  and  each 
division  of  the  year.  Suggestions  for  courses  of  study  in  rela- 
tion to  textiles,  sewing,  dressmaking,  and  management  can  be 
found  in  "  Domestic  Art  in  Woman's  Education,"  by  Anna  M. 
Cooley,  published  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  which 
is  a  book  for  teachers,  dealing  with  the  methods  of  teaching 
these  subjects ;  and  for  courses  in  foods,  nutrition,  and  sanita- 
tion in  "  Methods  of  Teaching  Domestic  Science,"  by  Helen 
Kinne,  published  by  the  American  Book  Company. 

Teachers  may  assign  exercises  for  home  work  according  to 
the  amount  of  time  each  consumes.  Many  of  them  are  arranged 
to  test  the  initiative  of  the  pupil.  They  are  also  intended  to 
indicate  to  the  teacher  possible  methods  of  accomplishing  some 
of  the  work.  Exhibits,  excursions,  written  exercises,  use  of 


yiii  SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

stereoscope,  stereopticon  lectures  by  class,  charts  of  textile  and 
house-furnishing  subjects,  sketches,  use  of  bulletin  board,  are 
all  helpful  and  interesting  to  girls. 

This  volume  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  sewing  and  other 
phases  of  the  work  of  the  average  elementary  school  and  does 
not  present  the  elementary  stitches  and  processes.  Of  the 
problems  suggested  for  practice,  choice  may  be  made,  or  others 
substituted.  It  is  wise  early  in  the  high  school  course  to 
review  the  hand-sewing  processes  rather  than  to  devote  the 
entire  time  to  machine  work. 

The  drafting  introduced  is  intended  to  give  freedom  and  not 
to  bind  the  girl  to  a  set  of  letters  committed  to  memory.  The 
main  aim  in  introducing  it  at  all  for  the  average  high  school 
girl  is  to  enable  her  to  change  commercial  patterns  and  to  "use 
them  more  freely. 

In  addition  to  the  books  on  methods  of  teaching  the  house- 
hold arts  suggested  above,  the  following  bibliography  may  be 
of  assistance  to  teachers  in  preparing  subject  matter :  — 

The  Art  of  Right  Living  — Ellen  H.  Richards. 

The  House  —  Isabel  Bevier. 

House  Sanitation  —  Marion  Talbot. 

A  Color  Notation  —  A.  H.  Munsell. 

The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art  —  A.  W.  Dow.  (New 
edition.) 

The  School  Arts  Book.  Published  by  the  School  Arts  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  Household  Arts  Review.  Published  three  times  a  year  by 
the  Household  Arts  Club,  of  Teachers  College. 

Homes  and  Their  Decoration  —  Lillie  H.  French. 

Art  and  Economy  in  Home  Decoration  —  Mabel  Priestman. 

Chats  on  Old  Furniture  —  Arthur  Hayden. 

The  Oriental  Rug  Book  —  Ripley. 

A  Sewing  Course  —  Mary  Schenck  Woolman. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS  ix 

Textiles  and  Clothing  — K.  Watson. 

Embroidery  Up  to  Date.  —  Butterick  Publishing  Company. 

Lace,  Its  Origin  and  History  —  Goldenberg. 

Textiles  —  Dooley. 

Household  Textiles  —  Charlotte  M.  Gibbs. 

A  Study  of  Textiles  —  Woolman  and  McGowan. 

Textile  Fibers  —  Matthews. 

Spinning  Woolen  and  Worsted — W.  S.  McLaren. 

The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant  — F.  Wilkinson. 

The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fiber  — F.  H.  Bowman. 

Ten  Centuries  of  Toilette  —  A.  Robida. 

History  of  Fashion  in  France  —  A.  Challamel. 

Millinery.  Current  Magazines.  McCall's,  beginning  in  Jan- 
uary, 1913. 

Dressmaking.  Current  Magazines.  Series  L'Art  de  la  Mode. 
January,  1913. 


CONTENTS 

PAKT  I 
THE  HOME 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  HOME 

PAGE 

The  Aims  of  a  Home  —  Ideals  in  Establishing — Education  in  the 
Home — The  Mistress  of  the  Home  —  Entertainment  in  the 
Home  ,  ...  .  ,.  v  .  .  '  .'  -.  1 


CHAPTER   II 
THE  HOUSE 

The  House  and  its  Surroundings  —  Apartments  and  Single  Houses 

—  Domestic  Architecture  —  Exposure  of  the  House     ...       15 


CHAPTER   III 
HOUSE  PLANS  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

Arrangement  of  Rooms  —  The  Cellar  and  Foundation  —  The  Upper 

Structure  30 


CHAPTER   IV 
HEATING,  VENTILATING,  AND  LIGHTING 

Stoves  —  Furnaces — Steam  and  Hot  Water  Apparatus  —  Ventilat- 
ing Apparatus  —  Candles  —  Lamps  —  Gas  and  Electric  Lighting      37 

xi 


Xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V 
WATER  SUPPLY  AND  DISPOSAL  or  WASTE 

PAGE 

Sources  of  Water  —  Contamination  of  Water  —  Filtration  —  Disposal 
of  Refuse  —  Drainage  and  Plumbing 45 

CHAPTER   VI 
DECORATION  OF  THE  HOME 

Guiding  Principles  in  Home  Decoration  and  Furnishing — The  Walls 
and  their  Covering —  Floors  and  Floor  Coverings — Woodwork  .  55 

CHAPTER   VII 
FURNISHING  or  THE  HOME 

Furniture  —  Draperies  —  Curtains  —  Pictures  and  Bric-a-brac  —  The 
Furnishing  of  Bedroom,  Bathroom,  Dining  Room,  Halls,  and 
Kitchen  .  w  .v ,  .  .73 

PART   II 
TEXTILES  AND  CLOTHING 

TEXTILE  MATERIALS  AND  HOW  THEY  ARE  MADE 

CHAPTER   VIII 
COTTON 

Reason  for  Study  of  Textiles  —  Cotton  Varieties  —  Growth  —  Cul- 
ture in  the  United  States  —  Ginning  —  Baling  —  By-products  — 
Manufacture  of  Thread  and  Cloth — Common  Cotton  Materials 
Every  Girl  should  Know  —  Cotton  Industry  in  the  United  States  97 

CHAPTER  IX 
FLAX 

Its  Growth  —  Varieties  —  Culture  —  By-products  —  Manufacture  of 
Yarn  and  Cloth  —  Common  Linen  Materials  —  Uses  of  Linen 
Yarn  —  Linen  Industry  in  the  United  States  —  Other  Vegetable 
Fibers  .  131 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER   X 
WOOL 

PAGE 

Varieties  —  Growth  —  Culture  —  Woolens  —  Worsteds  —  Remanu- 
factured  Wools  —  Manufacture  and  Furnishings  of  Wool  Fabrics 

—  Uses  of  Woolen  Yarn  —  Common  Woolen  and  Worsted  Mate- 
rials—  Wool  Industry  in  the  United  States  .         ....     148 

CHAPTER   XI 

SILK 

Its  Culture  —  Growth  —  Varieties  —  Manufacture  of  Thread  —  Cloth 

—  Silk  Dyeing  and  Finishing  —  Other  Uses  —  Other  Silk  Fibers 

—  Silk  Industry  in  the  United  States  —  Common  Silk  Materials    171 

CHAPTER   XII 
COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX 

Microscopical  and  Chemical  Differences — Varying  Characteristics 
and  Properties  —  Methods  of  Adulteration  of  our  Common  Mate- 
rials and  Ways  of  testing  Them  —  Chemical  Tests  for  Identifica- 
tion of  Fibers  —  Other  Tests  for  Fibers  188 


SEWING  AND   GARMENT  MAKING 

CHAPTER   XIII 
UNDERGARMENTS 

Hand  vs.  Machine  Work  —  Ethics  of  Purchase  of  Underwear  — 
Sewing  Machines  and  their  Use  —  Materials  for  Underwear  — 
Decoration  of  Underwear 200 

CHAPTER  XIV 
PATTERNS 

Altering  —  Interpreting  —  Testing  —  Drafting  —  Commercial  Pat- 
terns and  their  Use  .....  .  217 


Xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XV 
DRAFTING 

PAGB 

Drafts  for  Kimono  Night  Dress,  Drawers,  Shirt  Waist,  Corset  Cover, 
Chemise,  Night  Dress  developed  from  Shirt  Waist  Draft  —  Foun- 
dation Skirt  Draft  for  Division  into  Four,  Five,  Six,  or  Other 
Gored  Divisions  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  226 

CHAPTER   XVI 
CUTTING  AND  MAKING  GARMENTS 

Undergarments  and  Other  Garments  —  Suggested  Problems  in  Sew- 
ing ...  .  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .  .  244 

CHAPTER  XVII 
EMBROIDERY 

Suggestions  for  Study  of  its  History  —  A  Few  Useful  Stitches  and 
how  to  make  Them  —  Some  Suggestions  for  applying  the  Stitches 
in  Combinations  .  .'  .  .  •  i  '  '  •-.  .  .  /J,  .-  :  .  257 

DRESS 

'CHAPTER   XVIII 
HISTORY  OF  COSTUME 

Egyptian  Costume  —  Greek  —  Roman  —  French  Costume  —  Early 
Middle  Ages  —  Fourteenth  Century— Sixteenth  Century  — The 
Renaissance  —  Eighteenth  Century  Costume  —  Period  of  French 
Revolution  —  Restoration  Period,  1815-30  —  Modern  Needs  .  274 

CHAPTER   XIX 
COSTUME  DESIGN 

The  Importance  of  Artistic  Dress  —  Its  Requirements  —  Principles 
of  Design — Unity — Lines,  Silhouette  and  in  Design — Dark 
and  Light  "  Value "—  Value  in  Color  — Color  Harmony  and 
Emphasis  —  Lines  and  Colors  for  Different  Figures  —  Fashion  — 
Simplicity  in  Dress  —  Appropriateness  —  Use  of  Jewelry  .  .  288 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  XX 
THE  HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 

PAGK 

Its  Importance  in  Relation  to  Health  —  Uses  of  Clothing — Selec- 
tion of  Shoes  in  Relation  to  Health  —  Corsets  —  Hats  and  Hair 

—  Underwear 303 

CHAPTER   XXI 
THE  ECONOMICS  OF  DRESS 

Economics  of  Selection  of  Materials  —  Allowance  and  Dress  Budget 

—  Budgets  for  Wardrobe  costing  $65  —  One  averaging  $125  per 
Year 311 

CHAPTER   XXII 
CARE  AND  REPAIR  OF  CLOTHING 

A  Few  Suggestions  for  Daily  Use  —  Care  between  Seasons  —  Care  of 
Colored  Clothes  before  Laundering — Renovating  and  Cleaning 

—  Dyeing — Renovating  Laces,  Silks,  Velvets,  Hat  Materials  — 
Removal  of  Common  Spots  —  Mending  and  Remodeling      .         .     319 

i  CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRESSES 
l 

The  Dresses  a  High  School  Girl  should  be  able  to  Make  —  Construc- 
tion of  Middy  Blouse,  Lingerie  Waist,  Tailored  Skirt,  Gymna- 
sium Suit,  Tailored  Shirt  Waist,  Norfolk  Jacket  Waist,  and 
Simple  One-piece  Dresses 332 

CHAPTER   XXIV 
MILLINERY 

Selection  of  Hats  —  The  Making  and  Covering  of  a  Buckram  Frame 

—  Lining  a  Hat  —  Making  of  Wire  Frame  —  Straw  Sewing  — 
Bow  Making  —  Suggestions  for  Trimming 348 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

PART   I 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  HOME 

UPON  the  privacy  and  sanctity  of  the  home  rests  the 
strength  of  American  democracy.  The  English  and  German 
nations  are  noted  for  the  deep-rooted  attachment  of  their 
people  to  the  home  and  for  their  skill  as  home  makers. 
They  have  fought  through  centuries  for  the  preservation  of 
their  home  ideals,  and  have  realized  the  nobility  of  the  profes- 
sion of  home  making.  The  words  " house"  and  "home" 
are  often  confused.  The  home  expresses  the  family  life  which 
is  lived  within  the  house.  The  house  is  the  place  where  the 
home  maker  surrounds  herself  with  artistic  and  harmonious 
furnishings  and  where  she  tries  to  work  out  the  ideals  and 
standards  of  living  that  will  create  the  real  home  atmosphere 
and  bring  about  the  development  of  all  of  the  members  of 
the  family.  The  material  things  of  the  home  express  the 
real  spirit  of  the  family  and  exert  an  untold  influence  on  its 
moral  and  intellectual  life.  The  home  should  stand  for  rest, 
for  peace,  for  comfort,  health,  and  inspiration,  for  the  true 
spiritual  development  of  each  member  of  the  family.  There 
should  be  unity,  with  a  chance  for  each  individual  to  express 
himself ;  a  democracy  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term. 

A  house  may  have  had  every  thought  and  care  expended 
upon  its  furnishing  and  equipment,  every  device  for  conven- 
ience and  comfort,  and  yet  fail  to  be  a  home.  The  home 

B  1 


.  -  ,  i  l] 

t  •»  ?2  1    •) 

. 
2  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


atmosphere  is  created  by  the  ideals  of  the  family  or  of  her 
who  is  to  lead  in  its  administration  and  management.  It  is 
her  artistic  sensibility  that  brings  about  this  atmosphere,  a 
something  that  cannot  be  bought,  but  that  is  the  result  of 
thought  and  training.  Each  real  home  should  be  an  insti- 
tution of  society  so  managed  that  the  best  and  most  efficient 
citizens  may  be  given  to  the  community.  Every  girl,  then,  in 
preparation  for  home  building  should  consider  carefully  this 
aim.  The  home  is  the  place  where  the  members  of  the  family 
retire  apart  from  the  world  and  where  children  receive  train- 
ing that  will  help  them  to  meet  the  problems  of  life  outside 
the  home.  The  household  machinery  should  be  so  arranged 
that  there  is  time  left  for  the  higher  life  of  the  home  and  for 
child  training,  as  the  main  aim  is  the  production  of  happy, 
healthy,  useful  human  beings.  The  home  makers  of  the 
ideal  home  are  not  so  worried  and  overtaxed  that  there  is  little 
time  left  for  the  family  and  the  real  joys  of  family  life.  The 
true  aim  cannot  be  achieved  if  more  thought  is  given  to  the 
care  of  the  house  than  to  the  physical,  spiritual,  and  mental 
development  of  the  children  —  character  building  is  the  aim 
of  home  making.  In  the  ideal  home  the  father  unites  with 
the  mother  in  the  aims  to  be  attained.  The  home  should 
satisfy  the  many-sided  needs  of  all  the  members  of  the  family, 
and  it  should  be  a  place  of  refuge  which  each  delights  to 
seek,  where  the  troubles  and  worries  of  life  are  shared  and 
the  burdens  carried  together.  It  is  the  character  and  ideals 
of  those  within  the  home  that  will  make  this  ideal  a  possible 
achievement,  not  the  mere  formal  walls  and  living  together 
of  a  group  of  people. 

Each  home  has  an  individuality  that  is  strongly  its  own, 
and  expresses  to  the  world  the  ideals  and  standards  of  life 
of  those  within.  As  long  as  there  are  men  and  women  and 
life  lasts,  there  will  be  homes.  The  girl  should  so  prepare 


THE  HOME  3 

herself  for  home  administration  with  a  view  to  improving 
present  conditions  of  home  life  that  her  home  will  minister 
to  all  that  is  good  and  beautiful  and  best  in  the  personal 
health  and  happiness  of  the  lives  of  her  family  and  not  to 
dissatisfaction,  unrest,  overelaborateness,  expensive  living, 
discord,  and  unhappiness.  The  home,  when  it  is  rightly 
developed  with  all  things  in  proportion,  works  entirely 
for  good  and  is  uplifting.  The  family  should  not  be  a  dis- 
organized group  with  no  regard  for  privacy,  individual  rights, 
or  the  good  of  others.  If  this  condition  exists,  the  home 
is  based  on  wrong  ideals.  No  community  is  better  than 
the  average  home  in  its  midst,  and  no  institution  outside  of 
the  home — church,  state,  or  school  —  can  compensate-  for 
the  neglect  of  home  training.  Professor  Giddings  defines  the 
home  as  "the  place  of  development  of  the  social,  individual, 
economic,  and  cultural." 

Ideals  in  establishing  a  home.  —  Much  thought,  therefore, 
must  be  given,  by  those  who  expect  to  establish  the  right  kind 
of  home,  to  working  out  the  ideals  upon  which  the  life  of  the 
home  is  to  be  based.  These  standards  of  life  must  be  clear, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  the  guiding  principles  that  direct 
the  activity  of  the  home.  Order,  contentment,  hospitality, 
godliness  have  been  called  tjie  house  blessings.  The  home 
maker  must  early  realize  that  "  man  does  not  live  by  bread 
alone,"  and  the  other  needs  must  be  as  carefully  considered 
as  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 

A  home  based  on  the  right  principles  will  be  simple.  There 
will  be  simplicity  of  living,  honesty  in  the  expression  of  what 
is  offered  in  the  home.  No  ostentation  or  living  beyond 
one's  means;  simplicity  in  entertainment  in  offering  freely 
of  what  one  has  to  friends,  without  apology  or  explanation ; 
simple  furnishings,  simple,  healthful  food,  simple,  artistic 
clothing,  all  help  to  simplify  life  and  give  the  home  makers 


4  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

more  time  for  the  family  joys  and  intercourse.  It  some- 
times requires  much  courage  and  independence  of  thought 
and  action  to  achieve  this  ideal  when  one's  neighbors  give 
elaborate  dinners  which  are  paid  for  with  difficulty,  seek  the 
excitement  of  moving-picture  and  vaudeville  shows  when 
they  can  scarcely  be  afforded,  and  neglect  the  allurements 
of  woods  and  fields  and  streams,  which  offer  more  healthful 
and  simpler  pleasures.  Modern  life  has  brought  much  that 
is  complex,  but  a  well-organized  home  with  right  ideals  will 
be  run  so  as  to  plan  the  spending  of  the  family  income  to 
the  best  advantage  of  all  and  to  consider  the  spiritual  as 
well  as  the  material  needs  of  the  family.  Simplicity  of  living 
will -add  much  to  the  independence  and  freedom  of  the 
group. 

A  home  with  right  ideals  will  be  harmonious.  The  mem- 
bers will  be  kind,  loving,  and  forgiving  as  well  as  thoughtful 
of  one  another.  The  religious  life  of  the  family  will  have 
expression  in  the  acts  of  kindness  to  one  another  and  al- 
truistic expression  outside  the  home.  No  home  is  well 
planned  which  omits  to  place  as  one  of  its  foundation  rocks 
the  thought  of  relationship  and  responsibility  to  the  Creator. 
Godliness  is  the  crowning  blessing  of  the  home. 

Cleanliness  and  orderliness  should  be  fixed  ideals,  for 
upon  them  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  whole  family 
depend.  Mrs.  Richards  used  to  speak  of  the  beauty  of 
cleanliness  as  the  most  costly  of  all  beauty.  Cleanliness  in 
the  preparation  and  handling  of  foods,  cleanliness  in  the 
care  of  clothing,  rooms,  and  furnishings  leads  to  happiness 
and  a  more  healthful  family  life.  Sanitary  science  demands 
that  thought  be  given  to  the  care  of  the  household  furnish- 
ings in  order  that  disease  may  be  prevented.  Simplicity  in 
furnishings  will  help  the  housewife  to  achieve  this  aim.  It 
is  her  duty  to  her  family  to  see  that  refuse  is  quickly  removed 


THE  HOME  5 

and  the  house  kept  free  from  dirt  and  dust,  that  the  plumb- 
ing is  in  order,  that  the  heating  fulfills  the  requirements  of 
the  family.  The  best  investment  made  by  the  family  is 
that  which  goes  to  promote  the  health  of  the  family.  Upon 
orderliness  in  the  household  depends  much  of  the  family 
pleasure.  In  the  ideal  home,  the  housewife  will  be  so  sys- 
tematic in  her  management  that  there  will  be  little  friction 
in  the  machinery  of  administration.  A  time  and  place  for 
everything  will  help.  Simplicity,  orderliness,  cleanliness, 
honesty,  godliness,  will  lead  to  harmony  in  the  life  of  the 
home. 

The  home  maker  in  planning  must  strive  for  standards 
that  will  develop  all  sides  of  the  individual  and  fulfill  the 
needs  of  all  the  members  of  the  family.  Health  of  mind 
should  be  sought  as  well  as  health  of  body.  Consideration 
should  be  given  to  questions  of  entertainment,  to  the  savings 
which  give  a  feeling  of  security,  and  to  opportunities  for  the 
exercise  of  altruism  in  various  forms  of  charitable  and  re- 
ligious expression.  Home  makers  have  a  wonderful  duty  to 
perform  in  the  education  of  their  children  so  that  all  sides 
of  their  natures  may  be  fully  developed. 

No  one  can  estimate  the  influence  of  a  home  that  is  so 
organized  that  the  life  of  all  its  members  is  centered  there. 
From  it  inspiration,  cheer,  and  comfort  radiate  to  guide  and 
help  those  who  enjoy  its  life  daily.  The  friends  who  come 
and  go  carry  with  them  the  memory  of  the  inspiration  and 
refreshment  offered.  There  is  no  element  so  vital  in  char- 
acter building  as  the  influence  of  a  well-ordered,  godly  home 
where  parents  have  united  in  the  thoughtful  training  of 
their  children. 

Education  in  the  home.  —  The  aim  in  the  establishment 
of  most  homes  is  the  training  and  education  of  children  in 
order  that  most  efficient  individuals  may  be  given  to  the 


6  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

community.  It  is  the  duty  of  parents  to  give  their  children 
every  possible  chance  and  so  to  educate  them  that  they 
understand  fully  the  meaning  of  right  living,  a  training 
that  will  take  into  consideration  all  phases  of  education. 

Physical  education.  —  Because  of  the  rapidity  of  modern 
life,  time  must  be  given  for  careful,  deliberate  training  by 
parents  in  the  right  use  of  the  bodily  machinery,  if  effective 
citizens  are  to  be  produced.  Parents  should  teach  their 
children  so  to  live  that  the  demands  of  this  machinery  are 
recognized. 

Food  is  of  primary  consideration  for  it  produces  the  force 
to  run  the  machine.  Unless  the  food  is  of  the  proper  kind 
and  of  sufficient  amount  the  machinery  will  not  run  well. 
Knowledge  in  relation  to  foods  and  their  nutritive  values 
is  the  power  that  will  aid  young  home  makers  in  supply- 
ing proper  nourishment  for  the  home  table  and  in  training 
their  children  to  think  carefully  about  the  choice  of  foods 
eaten.  Self-control  in  selection  of  food  should  be  a  part  of 
early  training.  Food,  moreover,  should  be  taken  only  at 
regular  intervals  in  order  that  the  digestive  organs  may  have 
time  to  manufacture  the  necessary  secretions.  Attention 
and  thought  are  given  by  few  parents  to  the  consideration 
of  the  habit  of  drinking  sufficient  water  of  the  right  kind. 
Water  should  be  safe  and  children  should  be  trained  to 
realize  that  a  sufficient  amount  must  be  taken  in  order  that 
the  blood  stream  may  be  diluted  and  carry  to  the  tissues 
the  necessary  food  in  solution  in  that  stream.  Sufficient 
water  is  an  absolute  necessity,  in  order  too  that  the  useless 
material  of  the  body  may  be  carried  away. 

Thought  must  be  given  also  to  daily  exercise  so  that  the 
supply  of  food  material  to  all  the  tissues  of  the  body  is  kept 
up  through  proper  circulation.  Fresh  air  is  free  for  all  and 
an  absolute  necessity.  Children  should  be  trained  to  think 


THE  HOME  7 

about  the  ventilation  of  rooms  in  which  they  live,  eat,  and 
sleep  in  order  that  the  proper  amount  of  fresh  air  may  be 
supplied.  Windows  should  be  opened  at  night  both  at  the 
top  and  bottom  for  circulation  of  air,  and  all  rooms  thoroughly 
aired  every  day.  Remember  that  heated  air  rises.  Sleep  is  a 
requirement  of  all  in  order  that  the  cells  of  the  body  may  have 
time  to  recuperate  and  be  ready  for  the  work  of  the  next  day. 
Growing  children  should  be  taught  the  necessity  of  sleeping 
from  eight  to  ten  hours  according  to  their  age. 

Cleanliness  of  the  person  should  be  as  carefully  considered 
as  proper  food.  The  bath,  as  well  as  the  bodily  functions, 
will  be  taught  by  the  mother  who  wishes  to  produce 
healthy,  happy  human  beings.  Selection  of  clothing  is 
equally  important,  for  the  body  must  be  properly  protected, 
if  it  is  to  perform  its  necessary  work.  Physical  welfare  is 
also  promoted  by  systematic  work,  something  which  must 
be  done  each  day ;  and  every  wise  mother  trains  each  of  her 
children  so  that  he  feels  a  responsibility  to  produce  something 
daily  according  to  his  age  and  capacity.  The  home  is  thus 
helping  to  train  in  foresight  and  responsibility.  Physical 
well-being  is  also  sustained  through  opportunity  for  relaxa- 
tion, pleasure,  and  amusement.  This  is  essential  in  order 
that  normal  people  may  be  produced.  A  good  book,  a  con- 
cert, a  walk  with  a  congenial  companion,  the  family  party, 
also  minister  to  the  complete  physical  development  of  the 
individuals  of  the  home.  They  give  rest  to  the  overworked 
nerves  and  should  be  so  chosen  and  planned  that  they  really 
afford  rest  rather  than  excitement.  Much  of  this  phys- 
ical education  and  training  may  be  learned  in  the  school 
and  based  on  the  scientific  studies,  but  it  remains  for  the 
mother  to  bring  home  to  the  child  through  daily  attention 
and  thought  the  necessity  for  this  important  phase  of  edu- 
cation. 


8  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

Religious  education  is  not  now  as  much  as  in  years  past 
a  part  of  home  training.  The  home  is  the  natural  place  for 
the  fostering  of  religious  ideals.  The  school  and  church  may 
offer  instruction  —  all  of  which  may  be  valuable,  if  it  is  care- 
fully and  systematically  planned  —  but  the  wise  mother  will 
still  supplement  at  home  and  offer  the  personal  instruction 
and  guidance  which  cannot  fail  to  help  to  build  character 
and  be  a  guiding  influence  through  life  after  the  child  has 
left  the  home.  In  the  ideal  home  both  father  and  mother 
will  unite  in  this  training.  Reverence  for  God  should 
early  be  inculcated.  This  should  lead  to  direct  instruction 
in  reverence  and  respect  for  elders,  parents,  and  teachers, 
which  is  so  often  lacking  in  the  youth  of  to-day. 

Intellectual  and  aesthetic  education.  —  While  much  intel- 
lectual and  aesthetic  training  is  given  outside  the  home,  in 
our  schools,  and  through  outside  agencies  such  as  lectures 
and  clubs,  the  ideal  home,  which  stands  for  culture  and 
training  of  its  young,  will  be  a  clearing  house  for  knowledge 
gained  outside.  It  will  furnish  side  lights  which  will  be 
broadening  and  enlightening.  All  education  is  not  found 
in  books.  Contact  with  people  of  culture  offers  inspiration 
and  a  fund  of  information.  Discussions  at  home,  with 
parents  and  friends,  of  subjects  under  consideration  in  school 
are  of  much  value.  Good  books,  magazines,  pictures,  and 
music,  all  aid  in  the  cultivation  of  aesthetic  and  intellectual 
ideals.  The  selection  of  furnishings,  the  discussion  of  art 
subjects,  such  as  pictures,  color,  sculpture,  architecture, 
should  supplement  the  instruction  given  in  the  school  and 
find  a  place  in  homes  where  the  parents  are  anxious  to 
secure  the  full  all-round  development  of  their  children. 

"  Man  does  not  live  unto  himself  alone."  Children  should 
be  taught  early  in  life  that  each  must  have  an  aim.  There 
is  a  goal  to  attain,  and  life  is  not  merely  the  achieving  of 


THE  HOME  9 

daily  pleasure,  but  there  should  be  an  aim  aside  from  such 
personal  gratification.  Each  individual  should  be  taught 
to  feel  his  social  obligations  and  his  duties  to  the  community 
in  which  he  lives.  The  development  of  a  social  conscious- 
ness in  the  minds  of  the  children  is  a  part  of  the  duty  of 
parents.  The  children  of  the  home  are  to  be  the  coming 
statesmen  and  leaders  of  the  people,  the  directors  of  savings 
banks  and  insurance  companies,  the  trustees  and  directors 
of  school  boards,  hospitals,  and  churches,  the  ministers,  mis- 
sionaries, doctors,  lawyers,  and  tradespeople  of  the  world. 
Children  should  be  trained  to  act  together  to  appreciate  the 
necessity  of  thought  for  others,  to  be  ready  and  willing  to 
lend  a  hand  in  work  for  civic  or  other  betterment.  Parents 
can  do  much  by  interesting  children  early  in  organizations 
that  are  working  for  such  good;  respect  for  government 
depends  largely  on  the  ideals  set  up  in  the  home.  Clubs 
(which  have  an  altruistic  aim)  started  in  the  family  circle 
and  composed  of  the  children's  friends  are  of  value  in  that 
they  begin  to  call  attention  to  the  duty  of  man  to  his  neigh- 
bor and  to  the  improvement  of  the  community  in  which  he 
lives. 

Ideals  of  honor,  thoughtfulness,  self-control,  responsibility, 
discipline,  foresight,  self-sacrifice,  love,  reverence,  and  order 
should  be  early  inculcated  by  parents  who  are  training  their 
children  wisely.  There  is  nothing  that  so  destroys  the  har- 
mony of  home  life  and  makes  for  discord  as  selfishness,  dis- 
regard for  the  feelings  and  property  of  others,  rudeness,  and 
impatience. 

The  mistress  of  the  home.  —  Most  girls  look  forward  to 
the  time  when  they  will  be  the  mistresses  of  their  own 
homes.  The  responsibilities  of  home  management  and  ad- 
ministration are  very  great  and  not  to  be  entered  into  lightly, 
but  with  much  thought  and  preparation  in  order  that  the 


10  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

home  maker  may  guide  and  direct  wisely  the  lives  of  those 
given  to  her  care.  Home  making  is  a  profession,  and 
women  should  be  educated  to  fill  this  position  as  men  are 
trained  to  occupy  positions  in  office,  factory,  or  court. 
The  home  maker  must  fill  many  niches  in  her  home  and  at 
the  same  time  have  the  ability  to  direct  with  force  and  initia- 
tive all  the  business  of  the  household.  Training  for  home 
making  will  give  woman  this  power,  for  she  will  understand 
the  physical,  religious,  intellectual,  and  a3sthetic  needs  of 
her  family  and  will  be  able  to  minister  to  them.  The 
knowledge,  and  ability  gained  through  training  in  home 
making  will  enable  woman  to  run  her  household  in  a  business- 
like way,  and  as  she  begins  to  understand  the  sciences  and 
learns  to  use  them,  real  joy  and  pleasure  will  be  hers  in  the 
performance  of  the  daily  duties  of  her  profession.  Girls  of 
to-day  have  a  wonderful  opportunity  in  the  schools  to  receive 
much  of  scientific  training  for  the  profession  of  home  making. 
Besides  training  there  are  many  characteristics  which  the 
ideal  mistress  should  possess  in  order  that  her  home  making 
may  be  a  success.  Health  should  be  placed  first.  The  girl 
of  to-day  who  expects  to  be  the  home  maker  and  mother  of 
to-morrow  must  obey  the  laws  of  Nature  and  each  day 
consider  thoughtfully  the  cultivation  of  physical  strength 
and  energy.  There  is  nothing  which  is  communicated  so 
quickly  in  a  home  as  the  exuberance  of  spirit  which  comes 
from  perfect  health.  Depression  and  lack  of  cheer  often 
pervade  the  home  in  which  the  mistress  is  low  spirited  be- 
cause of  ill  health.  Sympathy  and  tact  in  dealing  with  servants 
and  family  help  to  keep  the  machinery  running  well.  Fore- 
sight in  management  will  prevent  many  a  catastrophe. 
Foresight  enables  the  home  maker  also  to  plan  the  routine 
work  of  the  house  in  a  systematic  way.  Self-control  should 
be  practiced  at  all  times.  It  enables  the  mistress  to  "  keep 


THE   HOME  11 

her  head,"  to  remain  calm  and  cool,  to  rise  above  the  dis- 
turbance of  petty  things,  and  consequently  to  direct  others 
more  sanely.  Good  common  sense,  a  rare  virtue,  helps  many 
a  woman  to  weigh  carefully  the  relative  importance  of  house- 
hold duties.  A  brisk  walk,  even  though  some  duties  must 
be  neglected  for  its  sake,  will  help  her  to  regain  spirits  or 
freshen  her  for  a  difficult  task.  The  ideal  mistress  is  in  con- 
trol and  is  not  controlled  by  things.  She  keeps  constantly 
in  mind  the  fact  that  the  house  was  made  for  man  to  live 
in  and  be  happy  in.  A  rest  may  add  to  that  happiness  in  a 
way  an  immaculately  ordered  room  may  not.  At  the  same 
time  the  home  maker  must  weigh  the  relative  importance  of 
duties,  for  a  neglect  of  details  and  order  will  also  lead  to 
unhappiness. 

The  ideal  home  maker  is  thoughtful,  cordial,  polite,  and 
hospitable.  She  remembers  the  birthdays  and  other  anni- 
versaries of  the  family  and  friends.  She  is  ready  with  notes 
of  cheer  and  condolence  and  is  anxious  to  offer  protection 
to  those  who  need  her  sympathy  and  help.  She  is  cheery 
and  optimistic  and  her  manner  expresses  these  charms. 
She  is  neat  and  tidy  in  appearance  at  all  times,  in  her  room, 
in  negligee,  at  the  breakfast  or  noonday  meal.  Her  working 
clothes  are  neat  and  adapted  to  her  duties.  No  lace-bef rilled 
kimonos  or  dressing  sacques  are  seen  for  dish  washing  or 
other  household  duties.  She  has  time  to  change  her  gown 
before  the  evening  meal  when  the  family  is  united.  If  she 
prepares  this  meal,  she  arranges  her  work  so  that  time  is 
available  for  a  little  rest  and  opportunity  for  change  of  cloth- 
ing which,  while  adapted  to  her  work,  shows  thought  and 
consideration  for  the  home-coming  members  of  the  family. 

The  ideal  home  maker  will  find  time  each  day  for  rest 
and  inspiration. .  It  may  be  only  half  an  hour,  but  she  needs 
at  least  this  for  reading  and  reflection.  She  will  feel  the 


12  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

need  of  spiritual  help  and  guidance  from  her  Bible  or  other 
source  of  comfort.  The  newspaper  should  be  followed  daily, 
but  not  allowed  to  exclude  such  literature  for  study  as  time 
and  inclination  direct.  As  time  permits,  it  is  wise  for  her 
to  interest  herself  in  clubs  and  reading  circles  in  order  that 
her  vision  may  extend  beyond  the  duties  of  daily  routine 
and  there  may  be  gained  a  new  thought  or  idea  that  will 
benefit  the  whole  family  circle. 

The  mistress  of  the  home  expresses  her  ideals  also  in  the 
furnishings  of  her  home.  They  will  be  simple  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  ideals  of  beauty  and  harmony.  Some  one  has 
said  that  the  home  should  be  so  furnished  that  it  will  neither 
oppress  nor  embarrass  those  who  are  invited  within.  Ruskin 
said :  "  If  you  have  sense  and  feeling,  determine  what  sort 
of  a  house  will  be  fit  for  you ;  determine  to  work  for  it,  to 
get  it,  and  to  die  in  it,  if  the  Lord  will.  I  mean  one  that 
you  can  entirely  enjoy  and  manage,  but  which  you  will  not 
be  proud  of,  except  as  you  make  it  charming  in  its  modesty." 

Entertainment  in  the  home.  —  Human  beings  must  associ- 
ate in  a  more  or  less  intimate  degree.  This  is  a  natural  and 
right  desire.  In  the  modest  home  parents  should  so  plan 
in  the  expenditure  of  their  income  that  some  of  the  portion 
reserved  for  pleasure  is  used  in  simple  entertainment  within 
the  home,  of  guests  and  friends  of  both  children  and  parents. 
Simplicity  in  entertainment,  genuine  hospitality  to  the  pass- 
ing stranger  should  be  a  possibility  in  every  real  home, 
where  husband  and  children  have  only  to  request,  knowing 
that  the  mistress  of  the  home  will  arrange  if  possible  to 
offer  a  welcome  to  the  friend  for  dinner  or  luncheon  or  to 
stay  the  night.  Friendships  come  naturally  and  sponta- 
neously to  young  people  in  their  school  and  business  associa- 
tions, in  their  summer  travels  and  vacations.  Parents 
should  respect  this  expression  of  individual  selection  and 


THE  HOME  13 

guide  during  childhood  in  the  wise  choice  of  friends.  The 
natural  desire  follows  to  entertain  under  the  home  roof 
those  preferred  and  selected,  and  this  should  be  a  possibility. 
There  should  be  no  thirst  for  display  and  ostentation  in 
entertainment,  but  the  simple  entertainment  of  those  the 
family  delights  to  have  within  its  circle.  The  fact  that 
social  entertainment  on  a  large  scale  bores  and  wearies  is 
proof  enough  of  its  inability  to  satisfy  what  is  a  natural 
desire  for  human  associations,  but  simple  entertainment  and 
hospitality  brings  about  right  companionship  which  enriches 
and  develops.  There  is  a  wider  intercourse  between  men 
that  the  home  does  not  satisfy,  but  this  is  reserved  for  club, 
for  church,  for  association  outside  the  home  from  which  are 
selected  those  to  whom  one  is  drawn  and  to  whom  the  en- 
tertainment within  the  home  is  later  offered. 

The  ideal  home  maker  will  thus  train  her  family  in  right 
living,  for  in  this  way  only  can  effective  citizens  be  given 
to  the  community.  This  is  the  obligation  of  every  girl 
who  enters  upon  home  making.  Mrs.  Ellen  Richards  out- 
lines some  of  the  characteristics  of  right  living.  Aim  to 
keep  them  in  mind  in  starting  a  home. 


QUOTATIONS  FROM  MRS.  RICHARDS'  WRITINGS.1 

There  is  no  noble  life  without  a  noble  aim. 

The  watchword  of  the  future  is  the  welfare  and  security 
of  the  child. 

Love  of  home  and  of  what  the  home  stands  for  converts 
the  drudgery  of  daily  routine  into  a  high  order  of  social 
service. 

The  economy  of  right  uses  depends  largely  upon  the  home 

1  Written  for  the  Mary  Lowell  Stone  Home  Economics  Exhibit. 


14  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

maker  and  brings  the  return  in  health,  happiness,  and 
efficiency. 

Home  Economics  stands  for  the  ideal  home  life  of  to-day 
unhampered  by  the  traditions  of  the  past. 

Home  Economics  stands  for  the  utilization  of  the  resources 
of  modern  science  to  improve  the  home  life. 

Home  Economics  stands  for  the  freedom  of  the  home  from 
the  dominance  of  things  and  their  due  subordination  to 
ideals. 

Home  Economics  stands  for  that  simplicity  in  material 
surroundings  which  will  free  the  spirit  for  the  more  im- 
portant and  permanent  interests  of  the  home  and  of  society. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  meant  by  unity  in  the  home  ? 

2.  How  can  the  true  "home  atmosphere"  be  established? 

3.  What  is  the  aim  of  home  making  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  basing  home  making  upon  right  ideals  ? 

5.  Who  was  Mrs.  Ellen  Richards  ?     What  did  she  contribute 
to  the  Home  Economics  movement  ?     Try  to  arrange  to  celebrate 
her  birthday. 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  well-ordered  home  ? 

7.  What  education  should  a  home  provide  ? 

8.  What  physical  education  should  the  home  foster  ? 

9.  If  you  were  a  home  maker,  what  religious  training  do  you 
think  should  be  given  in  the  home  ?     What  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
training  ? 

10.  Name  some  characteristics  which  the  ideal  home  mistress 
should  possess. 


CHAPTER   II 
THE   HOUSE 

WHEN  we  go  house  hunting  what  an  event  it  is  and  how 
dreaded !  Yet  it  should  be  a  happy  occasion.  How  dif- 
ferent a  matter  it  was  in  the  early  days  of  our  country  when 
most  well-to-do  people  built  a  new  homestead  for  the  new 
family !  There  are  still  those  who  have  the  satisfaction  of 
planning  and  building  their  own  houses,  or  who  may  re- 
model some  older  house  in  a  small  town  or  in  the  country. 
But  most  city  dwellers  must  rent  an  apartment  or  flat,  or 
a  small  house  in  the  suburban  town.  There  are,  however, 
many  good  schemes  for  helping  those  with  moderate  incomes 
to  buy  houses  in  the  suburbs. 

What  we  look  for  in  a  house.  —  No  matter  what  the  type 
of  house,  whether  primitive  as  the  Eskimo's  hut,  or  as  com- 
plete as  modern  science  and  art  can  create,  it  should  meet  a 
few  apparently  simple  needs.  Protection  from  the  elements, 
from  cold  and  heat,  from  rain  and  snow  and  damp,  from 
intruders  who  might  interfere  with  the  family  safety  or 
possessions ;  water  at  hand ;  some  way  of  getting  rid  of 
waste ;  space  for  the  family,  for  all  their  occupations  and 
belongings ;  room  for  a  guest :  these  were  sought  by  even 
the  cave  dwellers.  And  we  have  not  passed  beyond  these 
simple  needs.  Our  enemies  are  of  a  different  kind,  but  the 
daily  paper  shows  that  we  must  pay  for  safety  locks;  and 
while  wild  animals  no  longer  prowl  about,  we  find  it  almost 
impossible  to  keep  out  rats  and  mice  and  harmful  insects. 
The  "  house  "  fly  is  now  called  a  "  typhoid  "  fly,  and  not 

15 


16 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


permitted  even  as  a  casual  visitor.  To  all  these  needs  we 
have,  added  what  the  cave  man  did  not  seek  for,  since  his 
life  was  largely  out  of  doors.  We  must  have  air  and  sun 
within  doors.  Doctors  are  now  talking  about  house  diseases. 
Tuberculosis  is  one  of  these,  and  the  fight  against  it  must 
be  made,  in  part,  just  here.  It  is  for  sun  and  air  that  we 
have  to  pay  large  rents  in  town;  and  it  is  partly  to  secure 


Courjesy  of  "  The  House  Beautiful." 
FIG.  1.  —  A  house  in  the  Italian  style. 

these  in  our  large  dwellings  that  tenement-house  commis- 
sions exist,  to  protect  those  who  cannot  protect  themselves. 
Then,  too,  there  must  be  protection  against  fire,  not  only 
by  the  fire  department  but  in  the  house  itself.  Modern 
nerves,  moreover,  demand  quiet.  We  may  want  our  own 
victrola,  but  we  do  not  care  to  hear  our  neighbor's,  and  walls 
and  floors  must  be  built  to  keep  out  sounds.  We  call  these 
simple  needs.  They  would  seem  to  be  human  rights,  but 
even  now  in  this  twentieth  century  how  many  houses  rank 
100  per  cent  in  all  these ;  in  warmth  and  coolness  at  proper 
seasons ;  perfect  dryness,  ventilation;  and  lighting ;  safety 
from  fire  and  intruders ;  and  room  for  each  member  of  the 
family  to  be  by  himself,  and  to  keep  an  open  door  to  guests  ? 


THE  HOUSE 


17 


Yet,  we  cannot  be  as  well  nor  as  happy  nor  as  useful  as  we 
should,  until  these  are  achieved.  Every  woman  must  know 
how  to  find  these  things  and  must  learn  to  demand  them, 
and  we  must  all  work  together  until  healthful  conditions  are 
possible  for  all. 


FIG.  2.  —  A  modern  English  house. 

Exterior  and  surroundings.  —  As  we  approach  various 
houses  on  our  hunting  trip,  we  look  for  what  is  pleasing  in 
the  way  of  beauty  and  homelikeness,  neatness,  and  general 
pleasantness.  The  house  itself  should  give  an  invitation  to 
enter,  and  should  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  countryside  or 
the  town. 

Apartment  and  block  houses.  —  The  question  of  rent  is 
so  important  to  the  inhabitant  of  the  apartment  house, 
that  the  thought  of  architecture  seems  almost  forgotten. 
Too  many  builders  of  such  houses  attract  by  cheap  showi- 


18  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

ness.  Within  a  few  years,  however,  apartment  and  block 
houses  have  been  built  that  are  dignified  and  strong  in 
construction.  Those  of  soft  brown  or  dull  red  bricks,  with 
harmonious  ornamentation  are  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Surroundings  are  important,  and  the  apartment  seeker 
must  think  of  this  as  well  as  of  the  interior.  Avoid  fashion- 
able streets,  if  the  income  is  moderate.  Rents  are  high  in 
such  neighborhoods.  Find,  if  possible,  a  quiet  street.  Often 
in  the  side  streets  of  the  city  the  most  satisfactory  houses 
are  found.  If  there  are  shops  in  the  house  or  near,  notice 
the  kind.  Avoid  those  that  give  off  odors  or  that  might  be 
noisy,  as,  for  instance,  a  laundry ;  also  those  that  are  likely 
to  cause  litter  and  attract  flies,  as  a  vegetable  stand.  Stables, 
gas  houses,  factories,  and  noisy  railways  should  also  be 
avoided.  Notice  if  high  buildings  cut  off  sun,  air,  and 
view. 

Convenience  to  some  conveyance  is  often  a  necessity,  and 
nearness  to  school,  church,  and  business  all  have  to  be  con- 
sidered. If  one  cannot  have  all  of  these,  for  ideal  spots 
are  few,  thought  should  be  given  to  balancing  the  objections 
and  selecting  the  best  situation. 

Choose  an  apartment  with  a  plain  and  tasteful  entrance, 
rather  than  the  cheap  and  tawdry  variety  which  adds  to 
the  rent  and  has  no  real  beauty.  There  is  probably  no  ques- 
tion of  lawn  or  garden,  but  it  may  be  that  there  is  a  green 
spot  opposite,  or  near,  or  trees  and  plants  at  the  entrance. 
Window  boxes  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  house. 

Architecture  of  the  single  house.  —  Here  we  have  an  op- 
portunity to  study  one  of  the  most  delightful  of  the  applied 
arts  —  domestic  architecture.  Despite  many  failures,  house 
architecture  in  America  is  much  better  than  it  was  a  few 
years  ago.  Not  only  are  the  younger  architects  doing 
strong  work  in  this  field,  but  our  taste,  as  a  people,  is  im~ 


THE  HOUSE 


19 


proving.     For  this  is  a  taste  to  be  cultivated,  just  as  much 
as  the  taste  for  pictures,  or  music,  or  literature. 

As  in  all  other  kinds  of  architecture  we  must  learn  from 
other  countries  and  periods.  Yet  we  have  made  grievous 
mistakes  just  here.  Witness  the  French  roof  of  about  1860, 


FIG.  3.  —  A  square  house,  with  hip  roof,  New  England,  1780. 

'  ^ 

an  adaptation  of  the  Mansard,  dignified  in  its  place,  but 
ugly  as  the  roof  of  a  small  dwelling.  Then  came,  after  the 
Centennial  of  1876,  the  attempt  to  use  an  English  style  of 
architecture  in  the  so-called  Queen  Anne;  and  there  have 
been  thousands  of  wooden  boxes  adorned  with  gables  and 
porches,  curious  medleys,  lacking  in  simplicity,  strength,  and 
beauty. 

At  present  we  find  certain  well-developed  styles,  adapted 


20 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


from  the  Italian,  the  English,  and  the  Colonial  and  post- 
Colonial  of  our  own  early  days.  The  Colonial  styles  show 
both  Dutch  and  English  influence.  In  the  stately  Colonial 
mansions  with  pediments  and  columns,  there  is  a  suggestion 
of  the  Greek.  On  the  western  coast  a  Spanish  type  is  being 
used,  after  the  fashion  of  the  early  Spanish  missions,  in  some 


Courtesy  of  "  The  House  Beauti/ui." 
FIG.  4.  —  A  modern  house,  semicolonial. 

cases  most  happily.  The  Italian  is  taken  from  the  villa  of 
Italy  and  is  for  large  houses  only  (Fig.  1).  It  is  broad  and 
low,  and  formal  in  composition;  well  suited  to  a  dignified 
house  with  much  space  about  it.  The  English  is  more  in- 
formal in  composition,  sometimes  rambling  in  structure, 
the  roof  much  in  evidence  (Fig.  2). 

In  the  Colonial  style  a  number  of  types  have  developed, 


THE  HOUSE  21 

both  for  the  large  and  the  small  house.  Our  forefathers 
built  strongly  and  simply,  whatever  style  they  used;  they 
did  not  always  originate,  they  frequently  adapted.  Some 
one  has  spoken  disparagingly  of  the  Colonial  as  "  carpen- 
ter's Greek  " ;  yet  while  there  was  doubtless  some  poor 
architecture  in  those  days,  there  were  certainly  many  houses 
suited  to  their  setting,  that  expressed  with  dignity  the  life 
of  that  time.  Under  Colonial  we  class  the  square  house, 
two-storied,  with  the  "  hip  "  roof,  and  pillared  portico  or 
porch  (see  Figs.  3  and  4).  This  type  of  roof  is  still  much 
used,  and  is  suitable  to  small  houses  of  the  square  cottage  or 
bungalow  type  (see  Fig.  11).  The  more  oblong  house 
with  the  "  gambrel  "  roof,  sometimes  one-storied,  sometimes 
two,  is  a  well-known  Colonial  type  (see  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7). 
There  are  still  simpler  houses,  built  during  the  same  period 
and  later,  those  of  one  or  two  stories,  with  generous  sloping 
roof,  very  plain  and  claiming  no  architectural  style,  but  never- 
theless showing  very  good  lines.  Then,  too,  we  find  houses 
with  a  long  sloped  roof  at  the  back,  known  as  "  lean-to  " 
or  "  salt-box  "  houses.  This  latter  style  is  being  used  at 
present  in  small  suburban  houses,  sometimes  with  good 
effect  (see  Figs.  8  and  9). 

Whatever  the  style,  there  are  some  definite  principles  to 
be  borne  in  mind,  and  others  less  easy  to  define,  quite  im- 
portant —  matters  of  feeling  largely.  There  is  a  certain 
relation  between  material  and  style  that  must  be  noticed. 
As  a  rule,  wood  is  better  for  a  small  than  a  large  house.  A 
large  house  built  of  wood  may  seem  barnlike,  or  may  re- 
semble a  summer  hotel.  That  the  English  house  is  in 
better  style  than  ours  is  due  to  the  fact  that  stone  or  brick 
or  plaster  must  be  used  in  England,  and  architecture  has 
developed  accordingly.  As  wood  becomes  more  costly  here, 
style  in  architecture  will  accommodate  itself  to  other  materials. 


22  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

Reenforced  concrete,  for  example,  seems  to  need  a  treatment 
quite  its  own.  The  combinations  of  different  kinds  of  ma- 
terial, say,  stucco  and  wood,  are  hard  to  manage,  and  are 
not  usually  good. 


FIG.  5.  —  House  with  gambrel  roof,  New  England,  1765.     The  piazza  is  a 
recent  and  poor  addition. 

Remember  that  the  roof  is  an  all-important  part  of  a 
house,  and  its  outline  must  not  be  much  broken,  except 
when  this  is  necessary  to  give  space  and  light  inside.  Dor- 
mer windows  must  be  very  simply  treated,  especially  when 
used  in  a  house  of  the  Colonial  style. 

Every  addition  to  the  house  in  the  way  of  porch,  or 
dormer,  or  window  must  be  made  to  seem  a  part  of  the 
house,  by  right  proportion  and  placing,  with  as  few  "  fancy" 
touches  as  possible.  The  old  Colonial  builders  were  es- 
pecially successful  in  their  treatment  of  doorways,  porches, 
and  windows,  and  their  work  should  be  studied  with  this 
thought  in  mind.  A  dignified  two-storied  house  with  fine 


THE  HOUSE 


23 


gambrel  roof  is  made  commonplace  by  a  straight,  narrow 
piazza  stretching  across  the  front.  Remove  such  a  piazza, 
add  a  square  porch  in  front,  or  possibly  at  the  end,  and  the 
change  is  wonderful  (compare  Figs.  5  and  6).  If  the  house 


FIG.  6.  —  The  same  house,  as  it  might  be.     Notice  the  fine  effect  of  the 
windows  as  compared  with  Fig.  5. 

has  one  main  portion,  everything  should  be  made  a  part  of 
that.  If  the  additions  are  large,  they  must  look  as  if  they 
grew  together.  Notice  how  in  Figure  1  the  addition  at  the 
right  has  this  intimate  connection  with  the  body  of  the 
house ;  in  Figure  4,  note  that  the  porches  are  subordinated 
to  the  house. 

An  architect  studies  what  he  would  call  "  balance  "  in 
his  design.  Notice  the  balance  of  the  grouping  of  the 
windows  on  the  two  sides  of  the  porch  in  Figure  4.  In 
Figure  2  there  is  a  beautiful  balance  in  the  gables  and  win- 
dows at  the  right  of  the  building,  and  although  these  gables 


FIG.   7. — A  one-storied  house  with    gambrel    roof,    New  England,    18th 
century.    A  similar  design  is  used  at  the  present  time. 


FIG.  8. — A  "  lean-to"  of  plain  design.     New  England,  about  1750. 

24 


THE  HOUSE  25 

are  at  the  right  and  not  in  the  center,  the  building  is  well 
balanced  as  a  whole. 

The  architect  knows,  too,  that  light  and  dark  masses, 
rightly  placed,  give  beauty.  In  Figure  4  notice  the  beauti- 
ful shadows  cast  by  the  cornice,  and  the  shadows  of  the 
porch.  In  Figure  2  the  two  recesses  for  the  door  and  the 
upper  porch  give  pleasing  shadows. 


FIG.  9.  — A  modern  small  house  with  the  "  lean-to  "  motif, 
long  slope  faces  the  front. 


Notice  that  the 


The  color  is  a  large  item.  Study  the  surroundings  of  the 
house  and  determine  what  colors  will  mingle  with  the  set- 
ting, without  standing  out  glaringly.  Soft  browns  and 
buffs  and  grays  and  dull  reds  are  almost  always  good. 
White  is  good  where  there  are  green  spaces  and  trees. 

What  we  seek  is  simplicity,  repose,  dignity,  and  unity. 
The  eye  should  be  able  to  see  the  house  as  a  whole,  and  not 
be  forced  to  move  restlessly  from  one  detail  to  another. 


26  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

How  are  you  to  know  what  is  good  ?  Study  what  you  see 
done  by  good  architects,  both  in  actual  work  and  in  print. 
Do  not  be  discouraged  if  you  do  not  understand  the  best 


FIG.  10.  — A  modern  suburban  house  of  no  definite  style,  but  pleasing  in  effect 

at  first.     You  will  soon  learn  to  distinguish  merit  and  prefer 
it  to  "  gingerbread  work." 

Many  magazines  dealing  with  country  and  suburban  life  illustrate 
excellent  types  of  houses.  Magazines  devoted  to  architecture  and 
some  art  magazines  give  quite  a  little  space  to  domestic  architecture 
both  foreign  and  American.  These  can  usually  be  found  in  libraries, 
and  some  of  them  wherever  magazines  are  sold. 

Exposure  of  the  single  house.  —  Sunshine  on  all  sides  of 
the  house  and  at  every  window  is  what  we  need.  This  can 
only  be  secured  by  placing  the  house  in  what  may  be 
called  a  cornerwise  position  in  respect  to  the  four  points 
of  the  compass.  That  is,  the  house  should  have  its  corners 


THE  HOUSE 


27 


in  these  directions  -with  -its  -faee -southeast  or  southwest, 
northeast  or  northwest.  Wherever  free  to  choose,  place 
the  house  in  this  way.  The  direction  of  the  street  often 
determines  the  position  of  the  house  in  regard  to  these 
points  of  the  compass,  and  unfortunately,  there  is  a  preju- 
dice in  favor  of  laying  out  streets  that  run  north  and 
south,  east  and  west.  Sometimes  the  house  can  stand  at 
a  slight  angle  to  the  street. 


FIG.   11. — A  modern  square  cottage,  or   "bungalow,"   well   proportioned. 
A  good  design  for  a  village  house. 

The  house  should  stand  as  far  back  from  the  street  or 
road  as  the  grounds  permit.  If  there  is  a  choice  between 
higher  and  lower  level,  the  former  is  usually  preferable  on 
account  of  soil  drainage.  To  be  sure,  such  a  house  is  more 
exposed  to  wind,  but  trees  and  other  houses  may  serve  as 
wind  breaks. 

The  shade  of  trees  is  grateful  in  summer,  but  no  matter 
at  what  sacrifice  of  the  tree  itself,  no  house  should  be  shrouded 


FIG.  12. — A  postcolonial  doorway,  New  Jersey,  about  1800. 


28 


THE  HOUSE  29 

in  foliage.  Trees  should  not  be  too  near  the  house  for  two 
reasons ;  their  roots  may  penetrate  the  walls  of  a  cellar,  and 
their  shade  lying  on  the  walls  and  roof  is  bad  for  the  fabric 
of  the  house  and  for  the  health  of  the  occupants.  In  set- 
ting out  a  tree  its  size  when  full  grown  should  be  estimated, 
and  the  tree  set  at  such  a  distance  that  its  future  shade  will 
not  rest  on  the  house.  A  verandah  will  give  shade  near  by, 
though  even  this  should  not  interfere  with  winter  sunshine. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Try  to  distinguish  different  styles  in  the  home  town.     Compare 
examples  of  two  different  periods,  and  see  which  is  better.     Compare 
two  of  the  same  period. 

2.  Bring  magazines  to  class,  and  discuss  the  illustrations,  which 
often  include  both  good  and  bad. 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  cuttings  from  magazines  and  advertise- 
ments.    Many    postcards  of    good  historic  houses  are  published, 
and  are  not  difficult  to  obtain. 

4.  Photograph  typical  houses  for  the  personal  and  school  collec- 
tion. 


CHAPTER   III 
HOUSE  PLANS  AND   CONSTRUCTION 

AFTER  all,  the  exterior  of  a  house  should  be  shaped  and  de- 
termined by  its  inner  comfort  and  convenience.  The  Scotch 
phrase  "  far  ben  "  speaks  of  that  inner  privacy,  the  hearth, 
which  is  the  heart  of  the  home,  and  around  which  everything 
else  is  grouped.  Some  one  has  said :  "  Begin  with  the 
chimney  and  fireplace  and  build  the  house  around  that," 

Arrangement  of  rooms.  —  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  we  must 
allow  for  radiators,  registers,  and  gas  logs,  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  much  choice  in  the  arrangement  of  our  rooms. 
Certain  things  may  be  said  of  both  apartment  and  house. 
Have  as  many  separate  rooms  as  the  purse  will  allow.  If 
there  must  be  economy  here,  combine  rooms  in  such  a  way 
that  separate  bedrooms  may  be  retained.  One  may  have  a 
general  living-room,  instead  of  sitting-room  and  parlor; 
the  dining  table  may  even  be  moved  into  the  living-room  or 
the  kitchen,  rather  than  give  up  separate  bedrooms  for  the 
sake  of  the  dining-room.  This  applies  only  to  crowded 
conditions,  because  we  want  our  kitchen,  dining-room,  and 
sitting-room  separate ;  though,  in  the  simple  home  where 
a  woman  does  her  own  work  some  doubling  up,  a's  suggested, 
saves  many  weary  steps. 

An  important  matter  is  the  way  that  rooms  open  into 
each  other.  Each  room  should  have  an  exit  independent 
of  every  other  room.  Where  rooms  open  into  each  other 
see  that  they  can  be  cut  off,  when  necessary,  for  warmth  and 
privacy.  Notice  that  the  arrangement  of  doors  and  win- 
dows permits  of  draughts  of  air  when  they  are  desirable. 

30 


HOUSE  PLANS  AND  CONSTRUCTION  31 

Wall  space.  —  Many  rooms  that  give  an  impression  of 
cheerfulness  actually  have  no  places  for  furniture  because 
they  are  so  cut  into  by  doors  and  windows,  fireplaces  or  radia- 
tors. See  that  the  bedroom  has  a  place  for  bed  and  bureau, 
and  that  each  room  is  so  planned  that  there  is  space  for  the 
furniture  appropriate  to  it.  One  house  was  found  to  have 
no  wall  space  large  enough  for  the  upright  piano  except  in 
the  dining-room  or  kitchen. 

The  kitchen.  —  See  that  the  kitchen  is  a  comfortable  room, 
not  too  hot  in  summer.  It  need  not  be  large  to  be  con- 
venient and  practical,  but  be  sure  that  a  draught  may  pull 
through  it.  Be  careful  to  have  the  kitchen,  supply  closet, 
and  dining-room  in  close  relation  to  each  other.  Fancy 
yourself  walking  from  one  to  the  other,  and  see  which  arrange- 
ment gives  the  fewest  steps. 

The  bathroom.  —  Notice  that  the  location  of  the  bathroom 
makes  it  easily  accessible  to  all,  and  that  it  is  light  and  well 
ventilated. 

Closets.  —  Remember  to  count  the  closets  and  cupboards 
and  see  if  every  available  space  has  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. There  is  little  danger  that  you  will  find  too  many. 

Entry  or  hall.  —  This  is  important  to  consider  in  the 
smaller  house.  We  all  like  a  wide,  comfortable  space  as  the 
front  door  opens  to  us.  But  in  a  large  house  a  hall  with 
broad  and  easy  stairway,  perhaps  a  fireplace,  is  even  more 
pleasing.  Do  not  have  a  cramped  or  crowded  entrance,  but 
be  sure  that  space  is  not  used  here  that  might  give  more 
real  comfort  in  the  living-room  or  the  dining-room. 

Stairs.  —  Notice  these  particularly.  Is  the  tread  com- 
fortable ;  are  they  safe  and  easy  for  older  people  and  little 
children ;  can  trunks  be  easily  carried  up  and  down  ?  Look 
particularly  at  the  back  stairs,  which  are  often  awkward  and 
dangerous. 


32  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

Some  other  important  points.  —  Remember  the  servant's 
room.  See  that  it  is  habitable  and  planned  for  human 
comfort.  In  the  apartment  look  particularly  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  rooms  in  regard  to  air-shaft  and  opposite  apart- 
ments. Do  not  forget  the  placing  of  fire  escapes.  Be  sure, 
too,  in  the  large  dwelling  house,  that  there  are  fire  escapes 
from  the  upper  story.  (For  ventilation  and  plumbing,  see 
Chapters  IV  and  V.)  In  a  house  large  enough,  plan  porches 
or  balconies  for  sleeping  out  of  doors,  and  also  if  practicable, 
a  room  that  can  be  completely  cut  off  in  case  of  illness. 
Such  a  room  may  be  placed  in  a  wing  or  ell. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  HOUSE 

This  is  a  technical  subject  in  the  field  of  architecture,  and 
the  details  must  be  worked  out  by  the  architect  and  builder. 
Every  householder  needs  to  be  informed  in  regard  to  certain 
basic  facts,  however. 

The  foundation  and  cellar.  —  Never  take  a  house  with- 
out looking  at  the  cellar ;  and  when  you  are  building,  be 
willing  to  put  enough  money  into  it  to  make  it  good.  A 
cellar  must  be  dry,  and  the  foundation  strong  enough  to 
hold  the  upper  structure  firmly.  Damp  in  the  cellar  pene- 
trates the  house,  and  a  badly  built  foundation  causes  settling 
and  cracking  of  the  walls.  This  is  true  in  an  apartment 
house,  where  we  usually  ignore  the  cellar  in  selecting  the 
apartment,  trusting  that  all  will  be  well.  One  family  that 
had  suffered  a  whole  winter  from  various  illnesses  learned 
in  the  spring  that  a  foot  of  water  had  been  standing  in  the 
cellar.  The  foundation  had  been  badly  laid  in  the  bed  of  a 
brook.  In  another  apartment  the  walls  cracked  and  a  ceiling 
fell  before  the  flat  had  been  occupied  a  year,  both  defects  due 
to  a  poor  and  badly  laid  foundation.  Of  course,  good  build- 


HOUSE  PLANS  AND  CONSTRUCTION  33 

ing  laws  and  honest  inspection  will  in  time  do  away  with  such 
conditions.  In  the  meantime,  watch  the  cellar. 

Have  good  workmen  and  do  not  hurry  them.  If  the 
diggers  of  the  cellar  strike  water,  tiles  must  be  laid  to  draw 
it  off.  The  floor  should  not  be  perfectly  level,  but  even 
and  inclining  gradually  to  some  lower  spot.  This  floor  is 
made  of  a  mixture  of  small  broken  stone,  sand,  and  cement, 
at  least  two  inches  thick  and  well  pounded.  When  this  is 
hard,  a  layer  of  mixed  Portland  cement  and  sand  two  inches 
thick  is  laid  over  it  and  made  smooth.  Such  a  floor  will  be 
strong  and  water-tight.  This  Portland  cement  is  the  best 
material  for  making  a  cellar  waterproof.  It  is  inexpensive, 
and  simple  to  use.  The  walls  must  be  plumb,  and  it  is  well 
to  have  a  coating  of  Portland  cement  placed  on  the  outside. 
Chinks  between  the  stones  must  be  filled  in,  and  an  even 
coating  of  the  cement,  one  inch  in  thickness,  added.  This 
should  reach  below  the  level  of  the  cellar  floor. 

This  same  method  can  be  applied  to  an  old  cellar,  by  dig- 
ging the  earth  away  outside,  to  the  very  bottom  line  of  the 
foundation.  This  plan  is  recommended  by  a  practical  cellar 
builder,  who  has  found  this  a  permanent  cure  for  many 
damp  and  leaky  cellars. 

Double  cellar  walls  are  sometimes  used,  and  are  good, 
but  they  add  greatly  to  the  cost  of  the  cellar. 

Materials  for  the  upper  structure.  —  Stone,  brick,  and  con- 
crete are  the  usual  materials  for  large  buildings,  and  small 
houses  in  cities  must  be  built  of  these  materials  when  the 
fire  laws  require  it.  They  are  durable  and  fireproof,  and 
not  absorptive  of  damp  if  the  bricks  are  well  baked  and  the 
walls  well  laid. 

Wood  has  been  the  material  of  the  average  single  house, 
on  account  of  its  cheapness.  It  is  no  longer  cheap,  if  the 
quality  is  good,  for  our  knowledge  of  forestry  has  come  too 


34  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

late  to  save  our  supply.  More  and  more,  brick  and  cement 
will  be  used  in  the  small  house.  This  will  make  for  safety 
from  fire ;  although  there  is  a  charm  about  a  well-designed 
wooden  house  that  other  materials  do  not  give.  The  outer 
wall  may  be  covered  with  clapboards  protected  by  paint 
or  cedar  shingles.  The  latter  soon  weather  to  a  pleasing 
color  and  will  last  many  years.  Stained  shingles  are  also 
much  used. 

Stucco,  laid  upon  wood,  is  increasing  in  use.  It  gives 
warmth;  has  a  pleasing  color;  and  saves  money,  in  that 
it  is  lasting,  and  does  away  with  the  expense  of  repainting. 
This  may  be  used  in  the  renovating  of  old  houses  instead  of 
paint. 

The  house  walls.  —  These  must  be  double,  with  an  air 
space  between  for  warmth  and  dryness.  In  a  wooden  house 
some  good  sheathing  should  be  used,  of  heavy  paper  made 
for  the  purpose.  Hollow  tiles  give  the  necessary  air  space 
in  brick  and  stone  houses.  The  inner  wall  must  be  covered 
with  good  plaster.  This  must  not  freeze  while  wet,  and 
must  be  thoroughly  dry  before  the  house  is  occupied.  One 
thing  that  we  should  ask  for  in  the  inner  wall  and  ceiling 
and  floor  is  a  curve  when  two  surfaces  meet  at  right  angles ; 
round  corners,  as  it  were.  This  does  away  with  one  trap 
for  dirt,  and  is  used  in  well-built  hospitals.  The  architect 
will  tell  you  that  this  adds  to  the  cost.  The  inner  finish  of 
the  walls  will  be  considered  in  the  chapter  on  decoration. 

The  floors.  —  The  floors  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned 
wood  carefully  laid.  They  should  be  double,  in  order  that 
sound  may  be  deadened.  Sometimes  other  materials  are 
used  to  assist  in  the  deadening  of  sound.  For  details  in 
regard  to  the  floors  see  the  chapter  on  House  Decoration. 

The  roof.  —  Here  the  material  is  all-important.  The 
roof  must  be  waterproof,  durable,  a  protection  against 


HOUSE  PLANS  AND  CONSTRUCTION  35 

undue  heat  in  the  rooms  beneath,  not  too  expensive,  not  too 
difficult  to  lay,  and  in  harmony  with  the  remainder  of  the 
house.  It  will  make  the  house  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler 
in  summer  if  a  layer  of  mineral  wool  can  be  placed  directly 
beneath  the  roof. 

Tiling  is  beautiful  on  concrete  and  stucco  houses,  but  it 
is  very  costly,  and  so  heavy  that  the  lower  structure  must 
be  especially  constructed  to  hold  it. 

Slating  is  also  expensive  and  cold  in  effect. 

Cedar  shingles  are  durable,  and  one  of  the  best  of  the 
ordinary  roof  coverings.  There  is  a  new  method  of  apply- 
ing shingles  that  gives  the  effect  of  the  thatched  roof  seen 
on  the  English  cottage. 

A  felting  is  being  used  as  an  inexpensive  roof  cover.  It  is 
cemented  at  the  seams,  and  fastened  with  flat  nails.  It 
does  not  absorb  heat  and  can  be  painted  if  desired.  This 
is  a  good  covering  for  the  roof  dormer  windows. 

Avoid  tin.  It  draws  heat,  needs  repair  and  painting  often, 
is  noisy  when  rain  falls  upon  it,  and  it  is  ugly. 

Technical  details.  —  The  details  of  wood,  stone,  and  brick 
structure  must  be  studied  in  some  technical  guide.  Look 
into  the  matter  before  you  build,  talk  over  plans  with  the 
architect,  and  secure  good  workmen.  Poor  and  cheap  work 
are  accountable  for  most  defects  in  our  houses. 

Rental.  —  Rents  vary  so  much  in  different  towns  and 
localities  that  no  definite  statement  can  be  made  beyond 
the  fact  that  rent  must  never  exceed  one  quarter  of  the 
whole  income.  If  more  than  this  is  paid  for  rent,  ends  can- 
not be  made  to.  meet  except  by  undue  sacrifice  elsewhere. 
This  is  a  fact  stated  by  economists  that  works  out  in  prac- 
tice. Of  course,  if  the  rent  is  one  fifth  or  one  sixth  of  the 
income,  so  much  the  better.  Within  the  allotted  sum  one 
must  find  the  best  available. 


36  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

The  cost  of  building  must  also  vary  with  the  locality,  for 
the  cost  of  material  and  labor  is  not  the  same  everywhere. 
The  following  comparison  shows  how  much  the  average 
cost  has  increased  within  a  few  years.  It  is  the  custom  for 
a  contractor  to  estimate  the  cost  per  cubic  foot.  When  the 
size  of  the  building  is  decided  upon,  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
is  calculated,  and  this  is  multiplied  by  what  is  proved  to 
be  the  average  cost  per  cubic  foot,  all  labor  and  materials 
included.  At  present  this  is  said  to  be  $0.18  to  $0.20. 
Ten  years  ago  it  was  $0.12  to  $0.15. 

A  country  carpenter  in  Connecticut  in  1911  made  a  plan 
for  a  small  house  costing  $1200.  There  were  three  rooms 
and  pantry  downstairs  and  three  small  rooms  upstairs. 
This  estimate  did  not  include  plumbing.  It  is  evident  then 
that  $2000  will  build  only  a  small  house.  From  $2500  to 
$5000  must  be  available  for  average  houses.  This  means 
that  we  need  capital ;  that  we  must  save  for  some  time  ahead, 
borrow  from  a  good  Building  and  Loan  Company,  or  buy  on 
installments.  The  last  is  better  than  renting,  provided  the 
company  selling  the  house  is  financially  sound,  the  location 
good,  and  the  house  well  built. 

No  one  should  venture  into  such  a  scheme  without  con- 
sulting some  good  business  man. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  your  own  apartment  or  house,  and  bring  to  the 
class.     Discuss  its  good  and  bad  points.     How  would  you  alter  it 
if  you  could  ?     Discuss  this  at  home. 

2.  Bring  to  class  plans  taken  from  magazines,  and  discuss  in  same 
way.     This  method  is  more  useful  than  the  attempt  to  draw  ideal 
plans. 

3.  Visit  houses  in  process  of  construction. 

4.  Ascertain  rents  in  your  own  locality.     Discuss   the  reasons 
for  variation. 

5.  Get  estimates  of  the  cost  of  building  from  some  local  carpenter. 


CHAPTER  IV 
HEATING,   VENTILATING,   AND   LIGHTING 

HEATING  and  ventilating  must  be  studied  together,  for  in 
our  desire  to  shut  in  warmth  and  save  fuel  we  too  often 
shut  out  air,  and  must  take  great  pains  to  see  that  this  is 
supplied. 

General  aim.  —  We  should  aim  to  keep  an  even  tempera- 
ture in  all  parts  of  the  house  (from  68°  to  70°  Fahrenheit), 
to  supply  extra  moisture,  to  have  an  inlet  for  fresh  and  an 
outlet  for  foul  air,  and  to  save  labor  and  fuel.  Most  of  our 
heating  systems  are  defective  in  one  or  all  of  these  require- 
ments, and  to  secure  them  in  any  degree  of  perfection  means 
a  large  outlay.  But  something  can  be  done  in  each  case 
to  improve  the  ordinary  practice. 

Air  if  too  dry  is  injurious  to  our  breathing  apparatus, 
our  skin,  and  hair.  In  one  schoolroom  a  test  showed  that 
the  air  was  dryer  than  that  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  Yet  this 
defect  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  overcome.  (See  each  system.) 

The  fireplace  and  grate.  —  These  are  unusual  nowadays, 
used  in  summer  in  the  camp  or  bungalow,  in  spring  and  fall 
when  little  heat  is  required,  and  sometimes  to  supplement 
other  systems  in  winter.  The  open  fire  is  the  poetry  of 
heating;  nothing  should  ever  supplant  it.  The  heat  is 
agreeable,  but  uneven.  Ventilation  is  secured  by  the  pas- 
sage of  air  up  the  chimney,  if  the  chimney  is  well  built,  but 
drafts  from  doors  and  windows  are  difficult  to  prevent. 
Both  fireplace  and  grate  are  wasteful  of  fuel,  as  so  much  heat 

37 


38  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

passes  up  the  chimney.  With  coal  grates  a  large  shutter 
can  be  placed  in  the  opening  of  the  flue,  to  be  used  as  a 
damper. 

Wood  is  a  luxury  to  the  city  dweller  and,  as  usually  handled, 
an  extravagance  in  the  country.  If  the  wood  lot  from  which  the 
supply  comes  is  properly  forested,  wood  is  a  useful  fuel.  Every  one 
who  owns  a  wood  lot  should  obtain  pamphlets  on  the  subject 
from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  stove.  —  The  first  stoves  date  back  to  Colonial  days, 
and  still  bear  the  name  of  the  inventor,  Benjamin  Franklin. 
The  original  Franklin  stoves  are  much  sought,  and  there 
are  now  manufactured,  by  many  stove  firms,  replicas  of  some 
Colonial  pattern.  They  are  in  reality  iron  fireplaces  or 
grates,  standing  out  in  the  room,  and  radiating  more  heat 
into  the  room  than  the  fireplace.  They  are  used  in  country 
houses,  or  wherever  an  open  fire  is  wanted  and  no  fireplace 
is  built  in.  (See  Fig.  13.) 

The  type  of  coal  stove  known  as  "  self -feeding"  is  most 
common.  It  is  impossible  to  heat  a  house  evenly  with 
them,  as  it  is  seldom  desirable  to  have  one  in  each  room. 
The  room  above  can  be  warmed  by  placing  a  register  over 
the  stove,  although  bad  air  then  passes  upstairs ;  or  by  an 
iron  "  drum  "  in  the  upper  room  over  an  opening  in  the  ceil- 
ing. If  the  stove  is  not  well  made,  coal  gas  leaks  out  into 
the  room.  Moisture  must  always  be  supplied  by  some  ves- 
sel standing  on  the  stove  top.  This  is  important.  Labor 
on  this  type  of  stove  is  now  light  as  it  can  be  made.  The 
coal  is  poured  in  at  the  top,  feeding  the  coal  bed  below 
slowly,  and  the  draft  and  shaker  are  so  well  arranged 
that  if  cared  for  at  regular  hours,  the  fire  will  last  for  a  long 
time ;  weeks  even,  as  in  a  furnace.  One  great  objection  is 
the  space  taken  in  the  room,  and  also  the  extreme  ugliness 
of  the  patterns  commonly  on  the  market.  Iron  does  not 


HEATING,    VENTILATING,   AND  LIGHTING         39 

lend  itself  to  flower  patterns  and  human  faces.     This  is  a 
place  where  good  design  is  much  needed. 

The  wood  stove  is  used  only  where  fire  wood  is  abundant. 
The  heat  is  intense.  The  wood  in  the  stove  has  to  be  re- 
plenished more  often  than  coal,  but  the  fire  will  keep  over 


FIG.  13. — A  modern  reproduction  of  a  Franklin  stove. 

night  if  a  large  stick  is  put  in  late  and  the  damper  shut. 
The  sheet-iron  stoves  adapted  to  wood  cost  less  than  coal 
stoves.  The  old-fashioned  name  for  these  stoves  was  "  The 
Air  Tight,"  as  contrasted  with  the  open  Franklin.  A  wood 
stove  when  made  of  soapstone  gives  a  less  intense  and  more 
lasting  heat. 


40  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

Oil  and  gas  stoves  are  convenient,  when  other  means  of 
heating  fail  or  are  absent.  They  have  to  be  carefully 
watched  on  account  of  possible  fire.  They  vitiate  the  air, 
and  frequent  airing  of  the  room  is  necessary.  Water  in  an 
open  vessel  should  always  be  placed  on  them  to  evaporate 
and  furnish  moisture  to  the  air  in  the  room. 

The  hot-air  furnace.  —  In  some  ways  this  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  heating  the  small  dwelling  house.  Fresh, 
moist  air  is  easily  secured.  The  heating,  however,  is  not 
even  for  the  house  as  a  whole.  In  extreme  weather  the 
rooms  are  often  cold  on  the  windy  side.  Fresh  air  is  obtained 
by  a  window,  opening  into  an  air  box  and  flue,  built  into 
the  house  and  opening  into  a  chamber  in  the  furnace,  where 
a  pan  of  water  supplies  moisture.  This  air  box  should 
have  an  outside  opening  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  in 
order  to  have  better  air,  and  should  be  carefully  screened. 
There  must  also  be  a  contrivance  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  air  entering.  The  hot-air  registers  should  be  placed  in 
the  walls  at  the  side  of  the  room  rather  than  in  the  floor. 
A  register  in  the  chimney  will  give  an  outlet  for  bad  air 
in  those  rooms  adjoining  chimneys. 

Excellent  furnaces  are  made  that  save  fuel  and  labor, 
with  appliances  that  regulate  the  fire,  and  the  amount  of 
heat  given  off  in  different  kinds  of  weather  and  at  different 
times  of  day. 

Steam  and  hot-water  apparatus.  —  These  are  the  most 
common  methods  in  cities.  People  differ  in  their  opinions  as 
to  the  merits  of  the  two.  Steam  is  cheaper  to  install.  Hot- 
water  apparatus  gives  an  even  heat,  and  once  started,  may  be 
kept  even  for  the  season.  Steam  heat  is  controlled  more 
quickly,  but  is  more  intense,  and  the  heat  is  less  even.  With 
both  these  the  secret  of  success  is  in  having  a  large  furnace 
with  a  moderate  fire  rather  than  a  small  furnace  forced. 


HEATING,   VENTILATING,   AND  LIGHTING         41 

There  are  patent  contrivances  for  regulating  heat  and  sup- 
plying moisture,  but  these  are  not  commonly  found  in  inex- 
pensive plants.  So  here,  above  all,  moisture  must  be  supplied. 
Have  some  unbreakable  bowl  or  vessel  standing  on  each 
radiator,  secured  by  a  wire  if  it  does  not  stand  firmly.  A 
water  receptacle  made  to  hang  on  the  back,  containing  a 
heavy  piece  of  cloth  like  a  lamp  wick,  may  be  purchased  at 
steam  apparatus  supply  shops.  Radiators  are  apt  to  be 
ugly,  and  should  be  as  much  out  of  sight  as  possible.  In 
the  case  of  steam  heat,  if  the  radiator  stands  under  a  window 
see  that  it  is  protected  by  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  standing 
out  from  the  window  sill;  otherwise  there  may  be  trouble 
due  to  cool  air  condensing  the  steam  in  the  radiator.  In 
expensive  plants  hot-water  apparatus  is  sometimes  hidden 
in  wall  and  floor. 

Some  schemes  for  ventilation.  —  In  an  ideal  plan,  fresh 
air,  with  dust  removed,  warmed  and  moistened,  passes  into 
the  room  in  such  a  way  that  no  draft  is  felt,  while  bad 
air  is  removed  and  carried  out  of  doors.  The  air  should 
usually  come  in  at  the  top  of  the  room,  and  pass  out  at  the 
bottom.  Inlets  and  outlets  should  be  distributed  over  a 
space  (say  in  small  openings  along  the  cornice  and  foot- 
board), and  not  concentrated  in  a  few  large  openings.  For 
such  a  system  pumps  and  fans  and  shafts  and  flues  are 
needed,  and  the  cost  is  very  great ;  so  great  that  few  such 
systems  exist  in  private  dwellings. 

What,  then,  can  the  average  person  do?  Windows  and 
chimneys  must  be  used.  A  register  in  the  chimney,  near 
the  floor,  is  a  good  thing  with  any  heating  system.  Windows 
may  be  made  into  ventilators  by  putting  a  board  under  the 
lower  sash,  thus  letting  in  air  between  the  sashes ;  if  this  is 
felt  too  much,  cheesecloth  can  be  placed  over  the  opening 
and  a  board  placed  at  an  angle  to  turn  the  current  of  air 


42  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

upward.  Another  plan  is  to  lower  the  upper  sash,  and  place 
cheesecloth  across  the  opening.  Whether  air  comes  in  or 
pulls  out  at  a  window  depends  upon  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  the  position  of  the  window  in  relation  to  other 
windows  and  doors.  The  place  must  be  studied  to  see  how 
drafts  pull,  and  these  arrangements  made  accordingly. 

A  screen  as  large  as  a  fly  screen  and  covered  with  cheese- 
cloth is  an  excellent  thing  to  use  in  all  mild  winter  weather, 
and  may  be  easily  moved  from  window  to  window. 

One  thing  we  must  write  in  large  letters.  DO  NOT  BE 
AFRAID  OF  WASTING  HEAT.  Some  people  are  so 
economical  of  heat  that  they  breathe  foul  air  all  winter, 
night  and  day.  We  should  save  fuel,  but  we  must  save 
human  beings. 

Remember  to  air  rooms  frequently.  This  may  not  be  necessary 
in  the  twenty-first  century,  but  it  is  now  with  our  imperfect  ventila- 
tion. If  there  is  a  ventilating  system  with  fans,  close  all  inlets  and 
outlets  in  the  room  while  the  windows  are  open;  else  the  whole 
system  stops  working.  Airing  is  necessary  to  remove  odors.  Have 
windows  open  at  night,  in  all  weather.  Delicate  people  must  be 
protected  from  chill ;  but  they,  more  than  others,  need  the  steady 
supply  of  air  during  sleep.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  night  air.  What 
else  can  you  breathe  at  night  ? 

Lighting  the  house.  —  The  kind  of  light  that  we  may 
have  is  often  determined  for  us  by  the  city  supply,  or  that 
already  wired  or  piped  in  the  apartment  or  house.  Some- 
times we  may  choose,  even  in  small  towns  and  in  the  coun- 
try. An  electric  trolley  company  often  supplies  light,  and 
there  are  a  number  of  methods  for  making  a  home  supply  of 
gas. 

Artificial  light  should  be  steady,  never  flickering,  lighting 
the  room  as  evenly  as  possible,  soft  and  not  glaring,  the 
color  not  too  white,  or  bluish,  or  greenish,  but  inclined  to 
the  yellow.  The  placing  of  lights  is  something  about  which 


HEATING,    VENTILATING,  AND  LIGHTING        43 

we  are  often  too  careless.  For  lighting  the  room  well  high 
lights  seem  necessary ;  but  then  they  need  shading  or  soften- 
ing, so  that  the  light  does  not  strike  directly  into  the  eyes. 
A  better  effect  is  obtained  by  side  lights,  moderately  high, 
than  by  central  lights  suspended.  All  brilliant  lights  should 
be  toned  down  by  some  soft  shade  of  glass  or  other  material. 

In  planning  a  house  take  time  to  see  that  the  fixed  lights 
in  each  room  are  conveniently  placed  for  reading  and  sew- 
ing, and  for  toilet  purposes. 

A  reading  or  sewing  light  should  be  low,  shaded  to  protect 
the  eyes,  and  to  allow  the  light  to  fall  upon  the  book  or 
work.  It  should  fall  from  the  left  when  possible. 

Candles.  —  Candles  are  still  used  for  decorative  purposes 
or  when  a  soft  light  is  wanted  and  for  warm  summer  nights. 
Their  chief  defects  are  their  nickering,  and  the  possibility  of 
fire.  Candlesticks  are  now  made  with  small  glass  shades, 
others  with '  hoods  that  protect  from  drafts.  Metal  and 
paper  or  silk  shades  are  made  to  fasten  on  the  candle  itself ; 
but  something  attached  to  the  candlestick  is  safer. 

Lamps.  —  Nothing  gives  a  softer  and  steadier  light  than 
a  good  kerosene  lamp  with  a  central  draft  and  circular 
wick,  or  a  lamp  of  the  "  student  "  type.  They  do  not  give 
a  disagreeable  odor,  and  are  not  dangerous  if  well  cared  for. 
A  denatured  alcohol  lamp  gives  a  pleasant,  but  rather  too 
white  light.  It  will  not  be  used  commonly  until  denatured 
alcohol  is  cheaper.  One  great  advantage  of  the  lamp  is 
that  it  is  movable,  and  may  be  placed  where  it  is  most  needed 
at  the  time. 

Gaslight.  —  The  "  batswing  "  flame  is  passing  by,  for 
mantle  burners  use  no  more  gas,  and  give  a  more  brilliant 
light.  If  you  have  the  old-fashioned  flame,  see  that  it  is 
even  in  shape.  If  it  is  not,  something  is  wrong  with  the 
"tip."  This  you  can  remove  yourself  and  clean  with  fine 


44  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

wire,  or  sharp  edge.  A  new  tip  may  be  needed.  This  kind 
of  flame  needs  a  shade  to  protect  it  from  the  motion  of  the 
air. 

A  mantle  burner  gives  so  vivid  and  white  a  light  that  a 
shade  is  required  to  soften  it.  See  that  the  mantle  is 
straight,  and  that  it  is  not  jarred.  Have  extra  mantles  on 
hand,  and  learn  how  to  place  them. 

Electricity.  —  Where  electricity  is  used,  we  need  to  be 
very  careful  about  placing  the  light,  and  about  shading  it. 
A  foreigner  once  remarked  that  we  have  much  eye  trouble 
in  America  because  our  lights  are  too  bright.  Probably  we 
have  swung  too  far  from  the  tallow  dip  and  pine  knot  of 
pioneer  days.  Doubtless,  a  bright  electric  light,  unshaded, 
strikes  the  eye  like  a  little  flash  of  lightning.  Many  well- 
shaded  and  sometimes  artistic  lamps  are  on  the  market, 
and  home-made  shades  will  serve  the  purpose.  We  should 
be  particularly  careful  of  the  eyes  of  little  children  when  elec- 
tricity is  the  lighting  medium. 

EXERCISES 

1.  State  good  and  bad  points  in  common  heating  systems. 

2.  Why  should  the  pure  air  usually  come  in  at  the  ceiling,  and 
bad  air  be  drawn  out  at  the  floor  ? 

3.  Send  for  and  study  the  circulars  issued  by  manufacturers  of 
heating  apparatus.     They  often  contain  plans  for  ventilation  as 
well. 

4.  Study  the  heating  system  in  your  own  home.     Can  it  be 
improved  without  much  outlay  ? 

5.  Visit,  if  possible,  some  large  institution  where  there  is  a  good 
system  of  heating  and  ventilating. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE   WATER   SUPPLY  AND   DISPOSAL   OF   WASTE 

Is  it  not  strange  that  though  we  have  almost  conquered  the 
air,  we  have  not  yet  fully  learned  to  control  our  water  supply, 
and  many  people  still  trust  to  luck  that  the  water  they 
drink  is  unpolluted  ?  This  is  one  cause  of  the  yearly  deaths 
from  typhoid,  and  the  injuring  for  life  of  many  who  live 
through  the  fever.  And  this  is  only  one  of  the  evils  from 
impure  water. 

What  are  our  sources  of  supply?  How  shall  we  find 
clean  water,  and  how  shall  we  purify  it  if  it  becomes  pol- 
luted? Scientists  can  tell  us  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it. 
We  need  to  study  the  water  supply  and  disposal  of  waste 
together,  since  it  is  waste  matter  that  pollutes  water. 

Remember  that  clean  drinking  water  is  a  matter  of  money. 
Every  community  can  have  it  by  paying  for  it. 

Sources.  —  We  may  collect  rain  water  in  tanks.  In  Ber- 
muda this  is  the  only  source  of  supply.  Or  we  may  use 
surface  water  from  rivers  or  lakes.  Or  we  may  find  a  spring 
welling  out  from  some  hillside,  coming  from  deep  down  in 
the  earth,  slowly  filtered  through  leaves  and  soil.  Or  we 
may  reach  these  hidden  stores  by  digging  wells. 

How  to  prevent  contamination.  —  Nature  has  her  own 
ways  of  purifying  water  if  we  do  not  interfere.  As  water 
slowly  passes  downward  through  the  soil  it  is  cleansed, 
largely  by  filtration  and  partly  by  the  aid  of  certain  bacteria 
which  oxidize  the  impurities.  As  the  water  flows  along  in  a 
slow-moving  river,  or  is  held  in  a  lake,  the  impurities  tend  to 

45 


46  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

settle.  Air  and  sunlight  also  help  to  purify  it.  It  is  only 
when  we  let  waste  matter  collect  and  seep  through  some 
stratum  of  soil  into  the  well  or  spring,  or  when  we  pour  it, 
untreated,  into  brook  and  river,  that  Nature  cannot  work 
fast  enough  and  then  we  pay  the  penalty.  A  most  terrible 
epidemic  of  typhoid  in  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  was  traced 
to  one  case  of  "  walking  typhoid,"  where  an  outhouse  was 
built  above  a  brook  that  ran  into  the  river  supply  and  con- 
taminated the  water  of  the  whole  city.  So  our  watchward 
is :  "  Guard  the  sources  from  all  uncleanness." 

Rain  water  is  used  when  other  supplies  are  lacking.  It  is 
caught  as  it  pours  from  the  roof  and  pipes  into  a  cistern. 
The  pipes  must  be  so  arranged  that  after  a  dry  spell  the 
first  falling  water  is  turned  away  from  the  cistern,  until  all 
the  dust  has  been  washed  from  the  roof,  gutters,  and  pipes. 
The  cistern  must  be  cleaned  out  at  least  once  a  year.  This 
gives  a  clean,  soft  water,  with  a  "  flat  "  taste  that  many 
people  do  not  like. 

A  spring,  to  be  safe,  must  be  above  all  sources  of  pollution. 
Some  town  or  state  geologist  should  be  able  to  tell  you  how 
the  strata  of  earth  lie,  and  what  probability  there  is  of 
danger.  The  spring  should  be  dug  out,  cemented,  screened, 
covered,  and  piped  to  the  house. 

The  best  thing  to  be  said  about  a  well  is :  Do  not  have 
one.  If  your  property  is  large,  and  you  know  the  lay  of  your 
land,  and  have  all  waste  properly  removed,  a  well  is  fairly 
safe.  Or  if  you  make  an  artesian  bore,  going  below  bed 
rock,  the  water  is  free  from  organic  impurities,  but  may  be 
"  hard  "  with  lime  or  iron.  In  a  village  or  small  town  the 
ordinary  well  is  too  unsafe  to  use.  You  may  cement  it, 
have  the  surface  about  it  clean,  cover  it,  be  careful  of  your 
drainage ;  even  then  you  may  have  trouble  from  careless 
though  quite  distant  neighbors.  Every  village  and  small 


WATER   SUPPLY   AND   DISPOSAL   OF    WASTE     47 

town  should  work  for  a  common  and  safe  water  supply. 
Some  people  cling  to  their  wells  with  almost  personal  affection. 

The  common  supply  is  often  brought  from  a  distance  at 
the  expense  of  the  taxpayer,  but  at  a  less  cost  in  the  end 
than  the  loss  of  human  life  or  human  vigor.  The  source, 
whether  river  or  lake,  must  be  freed  from  all  filth  by  removing 
outhouses  and  refuse,  and  it  must  be  made  safe  •  by  constant 
guarding ;  in  large  systems  there  must  be  a  patrol.  Picnic 
parties,  campers,  and  bathers  must  be  kept  off.  Filtration 
plants  of  proper  size  must  be  installed  no  matter  at  what 
cost.  A  filtration  plant  is  a  large  bed  of  gravel  and  sand 
through  which  the  supply  slowly  filters  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer.  Our  large  cities  are  learning  this,  and  are  spend- 
ing millions  of  dollars ;  and  some  day  our  small  towns  will 
take  like  precautions.  It  is  a  mistake  to  value  other  luxuries 
above  filtration  plants. 

Ordinary  precautions.  —  If  you  use  an  unclean  city 
supply,  a  filter  on  the  faucet  will  strain  out  mud  and  large 
particles.  Such  a  filter  must  frequently  be  unscrewed  and 
boiled.  If  the  public  supply  is  reasonably  good,  faucet 
filters  are  of  very  doubtful  value.  If  there  is  any  doubt  of 
the  quality  of  the  supply,  the  proper  precaution  is  to  boil 
the  drinking  water  for  at  least  five  minutes.  This  must 
always  be  done  in  case  of  an  epidemic  of  typhoid,  which 
might  be  due  to  the  water.  The  boiling  "  deadens  the 
taste  "  by  depriving  the  water  of  air,  but  this  may  be  re- 
stored by  letting  the  water  stand  in  a  clear,  cool  place  or  by 
pouring  from  one  clean  vessel  to  another  several  times. 
Boiling  is  also  good  if  there  is  much  lime  in  the  water,  in  the 
condition  known  as  "  temporary  hardness."  Buying  spring 
water  is  a  doubtful  remedy,  unless  you  have  knowledge  of 
conditions  at  the  source.  Distilled  water  may  be  accepted 
as  safe  if  the  distiller  uses  good  methods. 


48  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

If  drinking  water  is  to  stand,  cover  it. 

The  ice  supply.  —  Natural  ice  is  unsafe,  for  freezing  will 
not  destroy  harmful  bacteria  nor  remove  dirt.  Artificial 
ice  is  better,  if  the  manufacturer  is  honest  and  the  factory 
clean.  In  either  case,  do  not  put  ice  into  the  drinking  water, 
but  cool  the  water  by  putting  it  in  bottles  on  the  ice,  or  in 
a  cooler  with  ice  around  it.  "  Too  much  trouble,"  you  say? 
Illness  is  a  greater  trouble. 

DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE 

So  important  is  this  matter  that  the  degree  of  perfection 
reached  seems  the  measure  of  the  real  civilization  of  any 
community.  Most  cities  and  small  towns  keep  the  "  best  " 
streets  free  of  litter  and  filth ;  but  look  at  the  back  yards 
along  our  railways,  the  vacant  lots  between  apartments  and 
houses,  the  river  banks  in  manufacturing  towns,  the  dump 
heaps  where  the  town  is  filling  in  and  "  making  "  land,  and 
you  will  see  that  we  have  much  to  learn,  and  much  to  teach. 
It  is  not  enough  in  these  days  for  the  housekeeper  to  see 
that  her  own  premises  are  tidy.  She  must  work  in  some 
way  with  the  whole  community  to  see  that  good  methods 
are  used  in  street  sweeping,  disposal  of  sewage,  food  waste, 
and  all  the  rubbish  that  is  thrown  in  the  scrap  heap  of  the 
human  family  —  ashes,  tin  cans,  old  iron,  old  shoes,  and 
paper.  "  Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind  "  has  been  the  easy  motto 
of  the  past,  meaning  out  of  our  own  sight,  but  not  our 
neighbor's  always.  Fire,  earth,  and  water  are  coworkers 
with  us  if  we  use  them  aright. 

The  isolated  house.  —  On  the  farm,  or  small  place  of  a 
few  acres,  we  can  take  care  of  our  own  waste,  without 
trouble  to  our  neighbors.  Food  scraps  are  given  to  animals. 
Everything  burnable,  like  paper  and  rags,  can  be  disposed 


WATER   SUPPLY   AND    DISPOSAL   OF    WASTE     49 

of  in  the  stove  or  by  bonfire.  A  large,  cylindrical  basket, 
made  of  a  piece  of  woven  wire  fencing  and  standing  at  a  safe 
distance  from  buildings,  will  hold  this  kind  of  refuse  for  several 
days,  and  it  can  then  be  burned  in  the  basket,  when  the  wind 
is  not  strong.  Tin  cans  and  unburnabla  material  may  be 
buried  in  a  hole  dug  for  the  purpose,  and  kept  covered. 
Such  things  should  not  be  carted  away  and  emptied  by  the 
roadside.  Slops  may  be  carried  off  in  pails  on  a  barrow, 
and  poured  on  a  different  spot  each  day.  An  earth  closet 
should  be  used,  with  pails  that  can  be  taken  out  and  carried 
off,  the  contents  to  be  burned.  Wood  ashes  are  used  as  a 
soil  fertilizer ;  coal  ashes  for  filling  in. 

If  there  is  water  piped  into  the  house,  waste  is  usually 
piped  out.  In  this  case  the  isolated  house  may  have  a  cess- 
pool, preferably  constructed  on  the  "  septic  tank  "  principle. 
It  should  be  dug  deep,  and  constructed  so  that  it  may  be 
self-emptying.  It  should  be  cemented,  and  divided  into 
two  compartments.  The  waste  passes  from  one  to  the 
other,  and  when  completely  liquefied,  passes  out  by  a  system 
of  pipes  and  tiles  into  some  open  field  where  it  is  taken  up 
by  vegetation.  The  old-fashioned  cesspool  in  the  back  yard 
is  a  constant  menace. 

The  village  and  city.  —  Here  there  must  be  community 
work.  The  outhouse  with  a  vault  and  the  cesspool  must 
be  banished,  and  some  system  used  for  the  whole.  Sewage 
can  be  piped  out  into  a  field  at  a  proper  distance,  and  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface  much  as  in  irrigation,  the  surplus 
water  draining  into  some  brook  or  river  after  it  has  been  thus 
thoroughly  filtered  through  the  soil.  This  "  sewage  farm  " 
method  has  been  tried  at  the  Experiment  Station  on  the 
Merrimac  River,  Massachusetts,  with  success.  The  septic 
tank  treatment  followed  by  filtration  through  sand  may  also 
be  used  on  a  fairly  large  scale.  Sewage  should  never  be 


50  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

poured  unchanged  into  a  river,  on  account  of  otrier  towns 
below.  If  sewage  is  poured  into  salt  water,  the  pipes  should 
run  far  out  and  reach  the  deep  tide  current,  and  even  so  the 
sewage  should  be  screened.  For  disposal  of  other  kinds  of 
waste  on  a  large  scale  there  are  ample  methods,  if  the  tax- 
payers will  only  believe  it  is  worth  while  to  pay  the  bills. 
The  city  may  partially  pay  expenses  here  by  selling  usable 
rubbish. 

Within  the  city  house.  —  Have  proper  cans  to  hold  waste, 
and  obey  the  city  ordinances.  In  New  York  City,  for  in- 
stance, food  scraps  and  paper  should  be  kept  separate. 
This  is  a  rule  made  by  the  authorities,  because  paper  and 
food  scraps  are  finally  disposed  of  by  the  city  in  different 
ways.  Whatever  the  town  rules  may  be,  obey  them.  If 
you  find  they  are  inadequate,  help  to  get  them  improved. 

Plumbing.  —  This  is  one  of  the  vital  things  in  the  house, 
upon  which  good  health  depends.  The  plumbing  system 
brings  in  water  and  takes  out  waste,  with  water  as  the 
cleansing  and  carrying  agent.  The  waste  pipes  must  be  of 
iron,  tight  at  all  joints,  and  large  enough  to  carry  off  all 
material  without  clogging.  They  must  be  placed  in  posi- 
tions that  insure  a  rapid  and  steady  flow.  Noxious  gases 
must  not  be  allowed  to  collect  and  pass  into  rooms.  Ven- 
tilating pipes,  called  vent  pipes,  are  connected  with  the  waste 
pipes  so  that  gases  pass  upward  and  out  above  the  roof. 
Water  is  used  to  prevent  the  gases  from  rising  into  the 
room,  and  is  called  a  water  seal.  The  water  is  held  in  a 
bend  in  the  pipe  called  a  trap. 

1.  The  trap.  —  Figure  14  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  trap, 
called  the  S  trap  on  account  of  its  shape.  This  is  still  con- 
sidered the  best  form  of  trap,  although  there  are  others  on 
the  market.  Notice  that  it  is  a  perfect  trap  for  holding  the 
water;  but  when  a  basin  is  emptying,  it  allows  a  rapid 


WATER   SUPPLY   AND   DISPOSAL   OF    WASTE     51 


passage,  and  so  it  does  not  hold  solid  particles  such  as  hair 

and  lint.     Notice  that  there  is  an  opening  at  the  lowest  part 

of  the  S  to  be  unscrewed  with  a  monkey 

wrench  for  cleansing  the  trap  once  in  a 

while.      There  may  be  a  collection  of 

lint,  or  grease  in  time,  even  when  the 

traps  are  well  flushed  daily. 

Each  basin,  sink,  tub,  and  closet  must 
have  its  own  trap.  If  two  basins  are 
connected  with  one  trap,  the  water  may 
sometimes  pull  out  or  "  siphon  "  from 
the  trap. 

2.  Sewerage     system.  —  Figure     15 
illustrates   the   main   parts  of  a  house  FlG 
system.     (1)  is  a  basin,  with  (2)  its  S 

trap;  (3)  is  a  pipe  two  inches  in  diameter,  (4)  is  a 
vent  pipe  for  gases ;  (5)  is  the  house  pipe,  four  inches 
in  diameter,  and  laid  at  an  angle ;  (6)  is  the  large  S 
trap  between  the  house  and  the  sewer ;  (7)  is  another 
vent  pipe ;  and  (8)  is  the  city  sewer  pipe. 

3.  Plumbing    attachments.  —  These    in- 
clude basins,  sinks,  bathtubs,  laundry  tubs, 
water-closets,  with  the  smaller  metal  attach- 
ments belonging  to  each. 

For  these  receptacles  a  good  porcelain  or 
vitrified   ma- 
terial   is    by 
all  means  the    7 


FIG.  15.  — Diagram  of  the  main  parts  of  a  sewerage  system. 


52 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


best,  as  it  is  sanitary  and  lasting.  Nickel  plate  is  better  than 
brass  for  the  small  attachments,  as  it  is  easier  to  keep  clean 
than  brass. 


FIG.  16. — A  well-fitted  bathroom,  the  fixtures  sanitary  and  simple. 

Figure  16  shows  a  well-fitted  bathroom.  Notice  the 
simplicity  of  the  support  of  the  basin.  How  easy  to  keep 
the  floor  clean  beneath.  It  would  be  even  better  to  have 
the  type  of  tub  that  rests  on  the  floor.  For  general  furnish- 
ing of  bathroom,  see  next  chapter. 

Figure  17  gives  a  cross  section  of  a  basin.  Notice  that 
there  is  no  chain  for  the  stopper.  The  "  waste  rod  "  (1)  acts 
directly  on  the  stopper.  The  stopper  (2)  in  basin  is  operated 
by  turning  the  handle  (3).  This  particular  device  is  said 
to  be  simpler  in  construction  than  any  other  of  this  type. 


WATER  SUPPLY   AND   DISPOSAL   OF    WASTE     53 


FIG.  17.  —  Cross  section  of  a  basin. 

If  the  faucet  is  one  that  turns  on  and  runs  steadily,  an 
overflow  is  needed.     This  overflow  is  not  easy  to  keep  clean. 


FIG.  IS.  —  Cross  section  of  a  siphon  water-closet, 


54  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

It  is  better  to  have  the  type  of  faucet  that  needs  a  steady 
pressure  to  keep  up  the  flow. 

Figure  18  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  siphon  water-closet. 
The  jet  of  water  is  concealed  from  view  and  passes  in  from 
the  pipe  at  (1),  the  water  rushes  out  of  (2),  the  vent  for  gas 
and  odors  at  (3)  is  said  to  be  the  best.  The  construction  is 
such  that  the  vent  is  above  the  top  edge  of  the  closet,  so 
that  any  overflow  taking  place  from  stoppage  in  the  closet 
is  not  forced  into  the  vent  pipe,  and  each  time  the  closet  is 
operated  the  vent  chamber  (4)  is  flushed,  as  well  as  the  bowl. 
This  closet  is  also  more  noiseless  than  many. 

Care  of  plumbing.  —  All  basins  must  be  cleansed  daily 
with  hot  and  cold  water.  Once  a  week  wash  out  the  traps 
with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  If  leaks  in  pipes  are  sus- 
pected, pour  peppermint  oil  in  the  vent  pipe  of  the  roof.  If 
the  odor  is  detected  anywhere  in  the  house,  send  for  the 
plumber. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Find  out  the  source  of  water  supply  in  your  own  town.     Visit 
it  if  possible. 

2.  If  a  small  town  or  in  the  country,  find  out  the  geological 
structure  of  the  country.     There  are  always  government  reports 
to  be  had  that  will  describe  this.     Decide  where  a  well  might  be 
safe. 

3.  Explain  how  a  mass  of  threads  and  lint  lying  in  an  S  trap  with 
one  end  in  the  trap  and  the  other  lying  over  the  curve  of  the  trap 
would  affect  the  water  seal. 

4.  Open  a  trap  with  a  monkey  wrench,  having  a  basin  below. 
Cleanse  it  thoroughly  and  replace  the  screw. 

5.  What  principles  of  physics  are  illustrated  in  the  action  of 
the  water-closet,  Figure  18? 


CHAPTER  VI 
DECORATION   OF   THE   HOME 

FEW  people  realize  the  effect  that  a  well-decorated  and 
well-furnished  home  has  on  the  daily  life  of  a  family.  It 
produces  an  environment  of  harmony,  of  beauty  of  form, 
line,  and  color ;  and  the  general  atmosphere  resulting  from 
this  harmony  is  conducive  to  better  living.  In  the  past  this 
work  has  been  put  largely  into  the  hands  of  the  experienced 
decorator  or  left  to  the  haphazard  working  out  of  those  who 
did  not  know  or  who  were  guided  by  intuition  rather  than 
principles.  The  girl  of  to-day  and  to-morrow  should  have 
a  fund  of  information  along  these  lines  that  will  aid  her  in 
surrounding  herself  and  her  family  with  the  colors  and 
forms  that  tend  to  promote  an  atmosphere  of  restfulness  in 
daily  living.  Many  people  who  have  not  technical  artistic 
skill  can  make  home  attractive,  and  this  is  as  much  an  ex- 
pression of  the  artistic  temperament  as  the  ability  to  paint 
a  beautiful  picture  or  to  model  a  statue.  It  is  very  impor- 
tant, for  it  is  helping  to  make  life  more  beautiful  through 
the  adaptation  of  art  to  everyday  things.  The  desire  to 
decorate,  to  beautify,  is  inherent  in  the  race,  and  the  most 
primitive  peoples  give  evidence  of  this  in  their  houses,  tools, 
and  dress. 

In  successful  home  furnishing,  the  aesthetic  aspects  together 
with  economy  and  hygiene  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Too 
many  homes  are  furnished  simply  for  show  without  relation 
to  health  or  pocketbook. 

Beauty  in  house  decoration  depends  upon  the  harmonious 

55 


56  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

relation  of  parts  and  of  each  part  to  the  whole.  The  aim 
should  be  to  make  it  as  simple  as  possible,  and  appropriate, 
in  that  it  is  adapted  to  one's  mode  of  living.  William  Morris 
said,  "  To  give  people  pleasure  in  the  things  they  must  per- 
force use;  that  is  the  one  great  office  of  decoration."  The 
home  should  be  refined  and  inviting  —  a  place  that  it  is  a 
pleasure  to  enter  —  where  cheer  and  comfort  greet  us  and 
the  atmosphere  is  one  of  rest. 

Much  of  this  general  atmosphere  can  be  produced  through 
the  right  kind  of  house  decoration.  Bright  colors  and  showy 
effects  with  exciting  combinations  do  not  tend  to  produce 
an  atmosphere  of  repose.  The  interior  should  be  simple 
and  an  honest  expression  of  the  life  within  the  home.  Young 
people  starting  a  home  will  find  it  wise  to  select  articles 
with  thought  toward  appropriateness  and  serviceability. 
This  requires  a  definite  plan  before  purchase  is  made,  for 
it  means  a  consideration  of  the  whole  life  of  the  home, 
spiritual  as  well  as  material.  The  problem  of  those  who 
are  already  established  in  homes  is  more  difficult,  for  this 
often  necessitates  the  utilization  of  present  belongings  in 
the  attempt  to  produce  harmony.  Sometimes  this  will  call 
for  the  disposal  of  much  that  is  ugly,  though  valuable. 
The  articles  about  the  home  should  express  the  individuality 
of  its  members  and  should  be  honest,  simple,  and  true.  Is 
the  furnishing  of  use  ?  Does  it  please  in  color,  form,  and 
decoration?  Is  it  durable?  All  these  questions  help  one 
to  decide  whether  the  furnishings  are  to  be  discarded  or 
whether  they  shall  remain  a  part  of  the  daily  life.  It  is  not 
good  taste  to  accumulate  a  quantity  of  useless  articles  in 
the  home,  but  rather  to  select  a  few  things  that  will  add  to 
the  comfort  and  well-being  of  the  family.  Do  not  forget 
in  selection  the  suggestion,  "  Decorate  construction,  do 
not  construct  decoration." 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  57 

Unity.  —  The  first  guiding  principle  then  in  the  selection 
of  decorations  and  furnishings  for  a  home  is  the  thought  of 
unity.  Some  definite  scheme  should  be  adopted  in  planning 
the  whole  apartment  or  house.  This  idea  should  be  kept 
always  in  mind  when  the  decorations  and  furnishings  are 
selected.  In  those  things  that  nature  clothes,  there  is  unity 
—  a  freedom  from  disturbing  and  unrelated  elements.  This 
unity  we  find  is  due  to  proper  relationship  of  shapes,  lines, 
dark  and  light,  and  color.  With  this  idea  in  mind  one  would 
never  decorate  in  bright  red  a  room  opening  into  one  of 
lavender  treatment,  or  place  a  set  of  dark  stuffed  furniture 
in  a  country  home  where  only  wicker  and  chintz  or  light  fur- 
nishing would  be  appropriate.  No  object  should  intrude 
itself,  and  one  should  be  conscious  at  first  only  of  a  delightful 
whole.  Decoration  is  for  the  purpose  of  producing  this 
harmony,  it  is  not  simply  for  ornament. 

Simplicity  in  house  decoration  and  furnishing  is  evidence 
of  good  taste.  It  will  prefer  the  things  that  are  appropriate 
and  which  meet  the  needs  of  comfort  and  daily  living.  Sim- 
plicity of  taste  means  that  conglomerate  mixtures  of  all 
kinds  of  materials  and  furnishings  will  not  be  tolerated. 
One  picture  of  good  print  and  simple  framing  will  be  prefer- 
able to  several  bright  chromos  or  large  family  portraits  in 
gilt  moldings;  one  simple  vase  with  a  beautiful  spray  of 
apple  blossoms  has  more  beauty  than  an  exhibition  of  bric- 
a-brac  such  as  many  homes  exhibit.  Use  as  well  as  beauty 
if  kept  in  mind  will  guide. 

Appropriateness.  —  In  planning  avoid  the  selection  of 
unusual  or  pretentious  furnishings  or  decoration.  The  fur- 
nishings should  represent  the  ideals  and  the  standards  of 
living  of  the  family,  should  be  within  the  income,  and  should 
be  appropriate  to  the  station  in  life.  A  Louis  XV  drawing- 
room  would  not  be  an  honest  representation  of  a  college 


58  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

professor's  life,  even  if  he  could  afford  such  furnishings. 
Ideals  as  well  as  ideas  influence  selection.  Simple  wicker  fur- 
niture and  muslin  curtains,  if  one  can  afford  them,  are  better 
than  cheap  imitations  of  fancy  brocaded  satin  draperies  and 
upholstered  chairs.  The  principle  of  appropriateness  must 
be  borne  in  mind  in  the  furnishing  of  each  room.  Uncomfort- 
able chairs  do  not  suggest  the  ease  and  restfulness  of  a  living 
room  or  heavy  draperies  and  thick  carpets  the  healthful  or 
inviting  bedroom.  The  use  of  articles  often  determines 
their  appropriateness.  "  Dust  collectors  "  are  seldom  useful 
or  appropriate,  and  much  time  is  consumed  in  dusting 
useless  bric-a-brac,  furniture  with  much  carving,  twisting, 
and  ornamentation  that  is  neither  beautiful  nor  suitable. 
One  would  not  expect  to  find  upholstered  chairs  or  velvet 
carpet  in  a  kitchen,  and  neither  should  one  find  inappropriate 
furnishings  discarded  from  other  places  in  the  bedrooms 
or  living  room. 

Decoration  must  take  into  consideration  also  the  prin- 
ciples of  good  line,  dark  and  light,  shape  and  color.  These 
principles  will  be  shown  in  their  application  to  dress  (Chap- 
ter XIX)  and  are  as  truly  applicable  to  questions  of  decora- 
tion and  furnishing  of  the  home. 

Good  "  lines."  -  The  home  selected  may  not  have  good 
form  or  "  lines."  If  built  according  to  one's  plans  and  ideas, 
it  is  possible  to  keep  the  proportions  in  proper  balance.  If 
this  is  carefully  worked  out,  homes  so  constructed  will  not 
need  as  much  decoration,  for  the  pleasing  "  lines  "  and  pro- 
portions are  decoration  in  themselves.  Houses,  like  people, 
must  be  so  decorated  by  dress  as  to  bring  about  the  most 
harmonious  effect,  and  to  correct  the  poor  lines  of  inartistic 
construction.  Some  suggestions  will  be  given  under  wall 
coverings  for  changing  the  effect  of  fixed  lines.  There 
should  be  no  jerky  angles,  but  a  rhythmic  flow  of  lines  one 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  59 

within  and  into  another.  The  proper  arrangement  brings 
about  design  and  space  relationship,  which  must  be  carefully 
considered  in  choosing  wall  coverings,  draperies,  rugs,  and 
other  furnishings. 

Color.1  —  Many  women  fail  in  their  schemes  for  home 
decoration  because  of  a  lack  of  real  appreciation  of  color. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  color  sense  needs  training, 
which  is  sometimes  difficult  to  attain.  Appreciation  is  often 
inherent  and  a  part  of  one's  being  because  of  early  associa- 
tions, travel,  and  training,  which  come  in  life  to  some,  and 
from  which  others  are  debarred.  Every  girl  in  her  high- 
school  art  classes  will  have  opportunity  to  study  color. 
To  think  about  color  in  daily  living  is  a  good  way  to  study 
it.  Notice  what  nature  teaches.  Observe  the  sunsets  on 
a  clear  day,  then  on  a  misty  one  when  all  is  rather  gray. 
Notice  the  wonderful  backgrounds  of  middle  values  of  gray 
and  purple,  brown  and  green.  See  how  the  bright  colors  are 
placed  in  little  patches  by  way  of  relief  and  determine  the 
relation  of  these  color  combinations  to  the  problems  of  dress 
and  home  decoration.  (See  color  suggestions  under  dress, 
Chapter  XIX.) 

Color  schemes  in  relation  to  light  must  be  carefully  con- 
sidered. This  will  be  explained  under  selection  of  wall 
coverings.  Gradation  of  color  is  a  part  of  every  correct 
scheme  in  home  decoration.  The  dark  values  and  less  in- 
tense colors  should  always  be  at  the  base,  consequently 
ceilings  are  light  in  value  and  walls  of  intermediate  value 
and  intensity.  Very  often  they  flow  one  into  another  with- 
out sharp  lines  of  contrast.  Contrasting  colors  or  comple- 
mentary colors  should  be  used  carefully,  as  this  arrangement 
of  decoration  tends  to  make  both  colors  stand  out.  Suc- 

1  "  A  Color  Notation,"  A.  H.  Munsell,  is  suggested  to  the  teacher  for  color 
theory. 


60  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

cessful  combinations  provide  for  the  use  of  a  large  amount 
of  one  color  and  a  small  amount  of  the  contrasting  color, 
which  is  always  in  subordinate  relation.  In  planning  color 
schemes,  those  having  one  predominant  color  will  be  found 
very  pleasing  for  simple  interiors. 

With  these  general  principles  in  relation  to  furnishing  and 
decoration  one  can  begin  to  consider  in  more  detail  the 
problems  of  decoration. 

After  the  house  is  selected,  the  first  problems  in  decoration 
relate  to  floors,  woodwork,  walls,  and  ceilings.  These  should 
really  be  considered  together  as  well  as  in  the  relationship 
of  one  room  to  another.  It  is  desirable  to  have  an  effect 
of  unity  and  harmony.  For  convenience  in  study,  the  walls 
will  be  discussed  first. 

The  wall  decorations.  —  Before  choosing  the  particular 
decoration  for  any  wall,  there  are  several  problems  which 
confront  the  home  maker  and  which  should  be  considered 
before  choice  is  made.  The  location  of  the  room,  its  size, 
shape,  exposure,  Use,  —  all  affect  selection  if  a  harmonious 
whole  is  to  be  the  result.  In  considering  the  walls,  questions 
of  sanitation  and  protection  are  as  important  as  decoration. 
The  painted  wall  is  most  sanitary,  for  it  can  be  cleansed  with 
soap  and  water  and  permits  of  some  decoration  in  the  way 
of  stenciled  borders,  etc.  Wall  papers  sometimes  decay 
and  become  infected  with  germs.  They  therefore  are  not 
as  sanitary  as  painted  walls.  This  makes  paint  especially 
preferable  to  paper  in  the  case  of  the  bedroom,  as  well  as 
the  kitchen,  pantry,  and  bathroom.  Walls  are  often  covered 
with  burlap,  canvas,  Japanese  matting,  muslin,  or  rough 
plaster,  and  for  decoration  these  are  sometimes  painted. 
Paper  is  the  most  common  wall  covering,  and  many  beauti- 
ful effects  can  be  obtained  with  it.  Its  use  is  more  general 
because  it  is  as  a  rule  cheaper.  Care  should  be  taken  to 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  61 

keep  it  clean,  and  it  should  be  changed  after  a  certain  period 
of  use. 

In  selecting  wall  decorations,  the  question  of  light  is  one 
of  primary  importance  and  the  location  of  each  room  should 
be  carefully  studied.  Light  enters  usually  from  the  sides 
only,  and  we  have  not  only  direct  but  reflected  light  from 
all  the  wall  and  ceiling  surfaces.  This  should  be  consid- 
ered in  decoration  when  the  question  of  too  little  light 
necessitates  a  light  wall  covering,  or  too  much  one  of  darker 
value  to  absorb  the  brightness  and  light.  Colors  of  strong 
chroma  and  dark  value  absorb  a  great  deal  of  light.  When 
there  are  few  windows  and  the  interior  is  gloomy,  a  bright 
wall  covering  of  cream,  yellow,  pale  green,  or  other  bright 
color  value  with  white  woodwork  will  produce  a  light  effect 
because  of  the  reflection  as  well  as  the  decoration  itself. 
The  question  of  the  particular  hue,  value,  and  chroma  of 
color  to  be  used  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  light  ad- 
mitted to  the  room  by  day  as  well  as  its  lighting  at  night. 
On  the  north  side  of  the  house  one  should  have  some  warm 
color  to  balance  the  deficiency  of  light  and  warmth  from  the 
sun.  Yellow  in  various  values,  or  other  warm  colors,  such 
as  the  so-called  reds,  terra  cotta,  tan,  golden  brown,  buff, 
etc.,  should  be  used  where  north  light  predominates.  When 
rooms  are  located  with  a  southerly  exposure  and  there  is 
plenty  of  sunlight,  the  cool  colors  are  most  effective  —  the 
light  values  of  green,1  blue,  lavender,  tan.  Bright  yellow 
or  reds  are  not  needed  in  a  sunny  room,  neither  are  cold 
greens  or  blues  comfortable  in  one  of  northerly  exposure. 

The  color  of  the  woodwork  and  floor  also  affects  the  pre- 
dominant color  of  wall  surface.  If  the  woodwork  is  painted, 
it  can  be  changed  more  easily  to  harmonize  with  the  wall 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  green,  blue,  and  lavender  papers  in  a  sunny 
room  are  apt  to  fade  rapidly. 


62  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

color  than  can  the  varnished  or  stained  woodwork  of 
modern  houses.  This  harmony  of  color  with  woodwork  as 
well  as  the  daylight  and  sunlight  of  a  room  should  be  care- 
fully weighed  in  choosing  color.  If  furnishings  have  been 
bought,  they  too  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  selection  of 
color  of  wall  covering  for  the  various  rooms. 

The  use  of  the  room  as  well  as  its  exposure  should  affect 
choice  of  wall  decoration.  Bedroom  walls  should  be  covered 
simply  and  quietly.  Such  rooms  are  primarily  for  rest. 
The  kitchen  walls  as  well  as  the  bathrooms  and  pantries  are 
best  painted  green,  tan,  or  buff,  a  warm  or  cool  hue 
according  to  location  and  amount  of  light.  The  living  room 
walls  should  be  treated  with  something  which  will  be  un- 
obtrusive in  color  and  design,  as  it  is  the  room  where  the 
family  collects  usually  for  rest  at  the  end  of  the  day.  The 
dining  room  should  offer  cheer,  and  certain  values  of  tans, 
blues,  and  reds,  according  to  the  amount  of  light,  are  always 
pleasing. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  rooms  are  also  of  primary  impor- 
tance. If  the  rooms  and  halls  are  small  and  open  one  into 
another,  an  effect  of  unity  is  produced  by  deciding  on  one 
rather  light  color  for  all.  This  effect  produces  a  feeling  of 
spaciousness,  for  light  colors  make  small  rooms  look  large 
as  dark  ones  tend  to  make  large  rooms  look  small.  If  the 
ceilings  are  low,  stripes  will  emphasize  the  height.  Borders 
should  be  omitted  in  rooms  with  low  ceiling,  as  they  break 
the  line  between  wall  and  ceiling  and  detract  from  the  height. 
If  the  ceilings  are  high,  the  effect  of  the  height  may  be 
broken  by  carrying  the  color  of  ceiling  down  on  the  side  walls 
or  using  a  border  with  the  picture  molding  below.  This 
horizontal  effect  detracts  from  the  height. 

The  walls  should  be  considered  as  a  background  for  the 
pictures,  furnishings,  and  life  of  the  home,  and  must  be  so 


1  2  3 

FIG.  19.  —  1.   A  poor  surface  pattern.     2.  A  poor  surface  pattern, 

dark  and  light ;  rather  good  in  line.  Original  too  intense.    3. 
surface  pattern. 


Bad  in 
A  good 


FIG.  20,  —  A  poor  striped  paper  between  two  good  ones. 
63 


64  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

harmonious  that  they  will  tend  to  unite  the  whole,  and 
yet  remain  the  background  and  confining  outer  limit.  Color 
in  wall  covering  is,  therefore,. very  important  in  its  effect 
on  the  atmosphere  of  the  home.  Red  is  known  to  be  very 
exciting  and  to  tax  the  nervous  energy  of  the  occupants ; 
while  strong  blues  and  cold  colors,  especially  in  sunless 
rooms,  may  have  a  depressing  effect.  Yellow  values  add 
to  the  sunniness  and  cheer ;  and  browns,  tans,  and  grays 
have  a  calming  influence.  The  study  of  color  is  very  im- 
portant in  its  many  combinations  and  possibilities.  The 
soft  colors,  that  is,  those  of  low  chroma  and  middle  value, 
are  the  most  pleasing,  for  they  make  good  backgrounds 
which  harmonize  well  with  the  woods  of  furniture,  floors, 
and  woodwork,  and  thus  unite  the  whole. 

Plain  papers  make  the  best  background  for  pictures,  as 
they  throw  in  relief  the  subjects  of  interest.  Plain  papers 
are  more  restful  than  figures,  and  one  does  not  grow  so  tired 
of  them.  They  are  more  apt  to  show  spots  or  soil  and, 
especially  in  a  hallway,  though  they  are  pleasing,  they  are 
not  durable.  Cartridge  papers  of  good  soft  colors  make 
effective  backgrounds,  as  do  burlap,  linen,  and  matting  in 
plain  color.  These  may  be  relieved  by  a  decorative  band 
or  border  near  the  ceiling,  the  width  of  which  will  depend 
on  the  height  of  the  room.  Borders  may  be  stenciled  on 
plain  paper,  or  designs  cut  from  figured  paper  may  be  ar- 
ranged to  form  a  border  and  give  a  finished  appearance. 

There  are  many  excellent  inexpensive  calcimine  tints  and 
water  color  paints  which  are  produced  in  good  shades.  They 
can  be  used  on  rough  or  smooth  plaster,  burlap,  muslin,  or  any 
surface  used  for  walls.  Oil  paint,  though  more  expensive,  is 
always  sanitary  and  pleasing,  especially  in  the  dull  finish. 

Figured  papers  are  preferred  by  many,  but  great  care 
is  necessary  in  selection  in  order  to  obtain  harmonious 


1  2  3 

FIG.  21.  —  1.  Good  surface  pattern.  If  dark  and  light  contrast  were 
stronger,  this  would  be  bad.  2.  Good  surface  pattern  —  good  in  dark 
and  light  and  line.  3.  Good  surface  with  effect  of  stripe. 


1  2  3 

FIG.  22.  —  1.    Conventionalized  floral  design  in  two  values  of  green.     Good 
floral  surface.      2.    A  poor  floral  design.      Too  strong  in  contrast. 
3.   Good  floral  wall  covering ;  value  relation  about  right. 
P  65 


66  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

effects.  The  use,  exposure,  and  furnishing  of  the  room  should 
all  influence  choice  (see  Fig.  19). 

Striped  papers  are  good  in  many  places  (see  Fig.  20). 
They  accentuate  the  height  of  a  room  and  are  dignified. 
There  should  not  be  great  contrast  in  color  between  the 
stripes,  for  this  tends  to  emphasis,  and  the  pronounced  dark 
lines  will  stand  out  in  an  unpleasant  way.  The  width  of  the 
stripe  should  depend  on  the  size  of  the  room.  Broad  stripes 
would  be  out  of  proportion  in  a  small  room,  as  they  would 
tend  to  lower  and  narrow  the  effect. 

There  are  many  excellent  patterns  in  wall  paper,  and  they 
should  be  chosen  with  the  room  in  mind.  Be  sure  that  the 
principles  in  relation  to  pattern  are  considered,  for  the  shops 
show  many  that  are  ugly  and  distressing.  The  plain  patterns 
are  usually  the  best.  Allover  patterns,  in  which  the  figures 
connect,  are  more  pleasing  than  those  in  which  spots  of 
repetition  stand  out  in  relief  (see  Fig.  21).  Figures  of 
allover  patterns  in  two  or  three  values  of  the  same  hues 
are  more  agreeable  than  those  of  contrasting  hues.  There 
are  many  ugly  scroll  patterns  on  the  market.  Beware  of 
these.  They  are  particularly  bad  when  carried  out  in  con- 
trasts of  color  so  that  one  feels  bewildered  by  them  on  enter- 
ing a  room.  The  wall  as  a  flat  surface  should  not  be  covered 
with  bouquets  or  flowers  which  appear  waiting  to  be  picked 
(see  Fig.  22).  The  designs  should  be  flat,  and  good  decora- 
tion will  represent  the  floral  or  fruit  designs  conventionalized 
and  adapted  to  the  flat  surface.  Avoid  glaring  contrasts  of 
color  and  design.  Large  figures  are  suitable  only  for  large 
rooms. 

Borders  and  friezes  should  be  used  with  figured  wall  cover- 
ing only  when  the  height  of  a  room  will  permit,  and  should 
not  be  used  at  all  unless  the  border  matching  the  paper  is 
good  in  design.  The  walls  of  some  rooms  may  be  of  proper 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  67 

height  to  permit  of  a  combination  of  figured  and  plain  cover- 
ing. This  combination  is  very  effective,  and  is  usually  so 
arranged  that  the  lower  f  or  f  of  the  space  is  plain,  with  the 
figured  paper  above.  This  gives  the  appearance  of  a  wide 
border  and  in  a  large  room  is  very  effective. 

Ceiling  effects  should  be  unobtrusive.  The  lightest  values 
of  color  scheme  should  be  used  there,  for  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  ceiling  acts  also  as  a  reflector  of  light.  Scroll 
effects  and  gay  color  are  not  suitable,  but  light  creams, 
grays,  and  tans  which  harmonize  with  the  walls  are  always 
good  taste. 

Picture  moldings  should  be  carefully  placed,  for  they  form 
a  horizontal  line  around  the  room  and  may  break  the  space 
in  wrong  proportions.  They  are  usually  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  wall  covering  close  to  the  ceiling  or  below  the  border. 
When  the  ceiling  color  is  carried  downward  to  make  a  high 
room  look  low,  the  molding  is  put  below  it,  and  about  on 
a  level  with  the  tops  of  the  doors  or  windows.  Avoid  over- 
elaborate,  highly  colored  moldings.  The  simple  ones  of 
natural  wood  or  color  harmonizing  with  the  walls  are  always 
the  best. 

Floors.  —  The  floors  of  each  room  should  be  considered 
in  relation  to  use,  furnishings,  woodwork,  and  wall  decora- 
tions. These  should  all  harmonize.  The  floor  is  the  founda- 
tion and  a  background  for  decoration,  and  much  of  the  final 
harmony  will  depend  on  its  treatment  in  color. 

It  is  certainly  more  hygienic  and  it  requires  less  work 
to  have  bare  floors  with  rugs.  Rugs  may  be  cleansed 
more  easily  than  carpets  and  the  wood  may  easily  be  kept 
free  from  dust.  If  the  floors  are  old  and  the  boards  not 
too  rough  and  uneven,  it  is  possible  to  fill  the  cracks  and 
holes  with  a  good  filler  and  then  paint  and  varnish  or  stain 
and  varnish  them.  The  question  of  the  kind  of  finish  will 


68  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

arise,  and  it  will  depend  on  the  cost,  use  of  room,  etc., 
whether  the  floor  is  to  be  waxed,  painted,  or  varnished. 
Light  values  of  brown  are  usually  good,  and  harmonize  with 
furnishings  and  at  the  same  time  do  not  show  the  dust. 
The  durability  of  floor  finish  should  be  carefully  considered, 
for  much  labor  may  be  saved  by  selecting  the  proper  kind. 
The  manufacturers  of  paints  and  finishing  varnish  have 
many  varieties  for  all  kinds  of  woods  and  all  conditions  of 
floors.  Careful  consideration  of  conditions  is  necessary  in 
selecting  the  finish.  Some  of  these  bring  out  the  natural 
beauty  of  the  wood  if  the  floor  is  a  new  one.  If  it  is 
impossible  to  have  hard  wood,  good  yellow  pine  makes 
an  excellent  floor. 

Hardwood  floors  are  the  most  beautiful  and  quite  hygienic. 
These  can  sometimes  be  laid  over  old  floors  if  the  surfaces 
have  been  planed.  Oak  and  maple  are  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory.  These  can  be  left  the  natural  color  except  for 
the  filler  and  wax  or  other  finish,  or  can  be  changed  in  color 
by  staining.  If  the  color  is  too  light,  as  it  is  in  some  natural 
finishes,  the  lack  of  harmony  with  the  walls  and  woodwork 
may  destroy  the  color  scheme.  Rugs  of  carefully  selected 
color  may  then  be  used  to  bring  about  the  right  balance. 
The  finish  is  important.  Good  wax  gives  a  beautiful  smooth 
surface  and  lasts  a  long  time.  Hardwood  floors  are  expen- 
sive in  the  beginning  because  of  the  filling,  staining,  var- 
nishing, and  waxing,  but  are  so  durable  that  they  may  be 
kept  in  order  for  a  long  time  with  very  little  extra  expense, 
while  carpets  must  be  often  removed  and  changed  to  be 
hygienic.  Waxed  floors  may  be  well  preserved  by  treating 
occasionally  with  a  new  coat  of  wax.  This  must  be  well 
rubbed  in,  which  makes  the  cost  greater  than  some  other 
finishes. 

Kitchen  floors  are  often  a  problem.     There  are  many  floor 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  69 

coverings  on  the  market  of  inlaid  rubber,  cork,  and  other 
materials.  Some  of  these  are  very  satisfactory,  many  are 
expensive.  The  inlaid  linoleums  can  be  bought  in  good 
colors  and  geometric  designs  and  are  very  seviceable.  Wood 
is  often  used  for  kitchen  floors.  Maple  is  very  dense  and  a 
treatment  with  oil  will  tend  to  prevent  the  wood  from 
absorbing  grease. 

Linoleum  or  soft  wood  painted  and  varnished  makes  a  good 
bathroom  floor  when  it  is  not  possible  to  have  hard  wood. 
Color  is  again  important  in  order  to  have  an  unobtrusive 
background.  The  linoleum  is  easily  cared  for  and  can  be 
laid  over  any  kind  of  a  floor  provided  the  boards  are  even. 
An  uneven  warped  floor  will  cause  the  linoleum  to  wear. 
Good  linoleum  costs  $1  or  more  per  yard. 

Floors  for  any  part  of  the  house  where  scrubbing  is  not 
necessary  can  be  filled,  stained,  varnished,  and  waxed,  or  in 
place  of  varnish,  shellac  can  be  used. 

Woodwork.  —  Woodwork  can  be  painted,  stained,  or 
finished  with  varnish  or  wax.  Color  as  well  as  durability 
must  be  kept  in  mind.  White,  gray,  or  cream  is  excellent 
when  these  colors  harmonize  with  color  schemes.  In  Colonial 
decoration  white  woodwork  in  harmony  with  mahogany 
rails  is  characteristic. 

To  secure  good  results  in  properly  finishing  woodwork 
with  wax  or  varnish  requires  much  labor.  This,  however, 
pays,  for  it  is  most  durable.  It  must  be  rubbed  thoroughly 
in  order  to  get  a  satiny,  glossy  finish.  Varnish  when  left 
shiny  is  most  inartistic  and  cheap  looking.  The  woods  are 
usually  finished  to  show  the  grain.  They  are  filled,  some- 
times stained,  and  finally  finished  with  wax  or  varnish.  If 
stained,  the  color  of  walls,  floors,  and  furnishings  should  be 
considered,  and  the  stain  should  not  be  obtrusive  in  color. 

Sometimes  soft  wood  is  painted  to  represent  the  grain  of 


70  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

hard  wood.  This  is  not  good  taste,  for  it  is  not  honest.  Such  a 
finish  is  called  "  graining,"  and  painted  surfaces  are  made 
to  imitate  oak,  or  the  grain  of  other  wood  surfaces.  A 
plain  painted  surface  of  suitable  color  is  preferable  to  this. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  have  hardwood  trim  in  order  to  get 
pleasing  effects.  Yellow  pine  and  some  of  the  cheaper  woods, 
when  stained  in  gray  or  brown  and  well  rubbed  down,  can 
be  made  to  give  most  artistic  results.  A  little  experimenting 
is  worth  while. 

After  the  walls,  floors,  and  woodwork  of  the  house  have 
been  carefully  considered  in  relation  to  color  schemes,  finish, 
etc.,  it  remains  to  place  one's  belongings  or  to  select  new 
articles.  Successful  furnishing  of  the  rooms  depends  on  the 
harmony  between  the  articles  of  furnishing ;  this  may  exist 
in  most  humble  interiors  and  depends  upon  careful  selection 
and  orderly  arrangement. 

Floor  coverings.  —  A  great  variety  of  floor  coverings  is 
on  the  market  from  which  choice  can  be  made. 

Carpets  of  various  kinds  have  been  used  as  floor  coverings 
for  many  years.  At  best,  they  are  not  hygienic  unless  often 
removed  and  cleansed,  which  is  seldom  practicable.  In 
most  old  houses  floors  were  finished  rather  roughly,  and  car- 
pets were  used  for  warmth  as  well  as  beauty.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  use  carpets,  they  should  be  carefully  chosen  in 
reference  to  the  size  of  the  room  and  the  color  values  of  the 
walls  and  woodwork.  A  plain  color  is  often  advisable,  and 
can  be  used  with  rugs  that  are  not  too  pronounced  in  color 
or  design.  Greens  and  browns  are  usually  good.  A  carpet 
with  large  scroll  pattern  or  bunches  of  Easter  lilies  is  not 
good  taste  because  obtrusive.  It  is  not  a  good  background 
for  the  rest  of  the  furnishings.  The  carpet  should  be  restful, 
the  size  of  the  design  depending  on  the  size  of  the  room,  and 
the  colors  not  too  many  in  number,  preferably  two  values 


DECORATION   OF    THE   HOME  71 

of  one  hue.  It  is  wise  to  have  the  floor  colors  of  darker 
value  than  the  walls  and  woodwork,  but  in  harmony  with 
their  value  and  intensity.  This  color  harmony  should  also 
be  kept  in  mind  in  selection  of  matting  or  rugs  as  back- 
ground for  furnishing. 

Carpets  of  Body  Brussels,  Wilton,  velvet,  and  ingrain  are 
the  most  popular  —  when  carpet  is  to  be  used.  Japanese 
matting  and  other  fibers  are  inexpensive  if  the  floor  is  to  be 
entirely  covered.  In  selecting  these  good  color  and  unob- 
trusive designs  are  best,  and  can  be  used  with  a  few  rugs 
to  relieve  the  monotony  or  with  one  large  rug  covering  much 
of  the  central  part  of  a  room.  Do  not  forget  that  a  good- 
sized  rug  makes  a  room  look  larger  than  several  small  ones. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  rugs  on  the  market  from  the 
beautiful  durable  Oriental  to  the  rag  rug  woven  at  the  farm 
home  or  by  local  weavers.  The  Oriental  rugs  are  beautiful 
in  texture  and  coloring  and  are  choice  possessions.  These 
rugs  were  first  used  by  the  tent-dwelling  peoples  for  wall  as 
well  as  floor  coverings,  and  were  things  of  sentiment  as  well 
as  beauty :  wedding  rugs,  dowry  rugs,  prayer,  throne,  and 
grave  rugs  —  all  woven  in  symbolic  designs  with  wonderful 
colors  of  wools  and  silks  of  beautiful  texture.  Much  of  the 
wool  for  modern  Oriental  rugs  is  still  spun  by  hand,  and  the 
rugs  are  woven  with  much  patience  and  diligence,  as  each 
little  knot  is  tied  to  make  the  pile  of  the  rug.  They  are 
really  mosaics  in  wool.  Rugs  from  the  East  are  imported 
from  many  districts  and  have  many  names,  Turkish,  Cau- 
casian, Persian,  Turcoman,  Indian,  in  many  varieties. 
Oriental  rugs  should  be  selected  by  one  who  understands 
their  value,  or  the  purchase  should  be  made  from  a  reliable 
house.  The  value  depends  upon  many  things  :  the  number 
of  knots  to  the  square  inch  and  the  length  of  the  ends,  the 
beauty  of  design  and  color,  the  quality  of  the  materials  used, 


72  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

the  dye,  and  the  manner  and  care  with  which  the  weaving 
is  done.  A  study  of  the  various  kinds  with  their  character- 
istic designs  is  most  interesting. 

There  is  great  variety  in  American  rugs ;  those  of  Body 
Brussels  and  Wilton  are  the  most  serviceable  and  are  sold 
in  good  colors  and  patterns.  The  "  Smyrna  "  rugs  are  soft 
and  reversible,  and  there  are  other  good  wool  rugs,  many  of 
which  have  patterns  in  two  values  of  one  hue,  as  border 
design  or  good  simple  figures. 

The  old-fashioned  braided  rug  and  the  rag  rug  are  useful 
for  certain  kinds  of  furnishings.  The  old-fashioned  patterns 
of  "  hit  and  miss  "  are  sometimes  distracting,  because  of 
the  way  in  which  the  white  is  introduced,  but  when  woven 
with  a  plan  so  that  the  spacing,  line,  light,  and  dark  have 
been  kept  in  mind,  they  are  quite  pleasing. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Mention  five  general  principles  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  house 
decoration.     Explain  how  each  affects  harmony  of  atmosphere. 

2.  What  principles  affect  the  selection  of  wall  covering  for  a 


room 


3.  Explain  the  relationship  of  woodwork  and  floor  treatment  to 
wall  covering. 

4.  Bring  in  samples  of  good  wall  papers  for  a  bedroom,  living 
and  dining  rooms  of  a  modest  eight-room  house. 

5.  In  all  house  decoration  and  furnishing  what  are  the  important 
things  to  remember  about  color  ? 


CHAPTER  VII 
FURNISHING   OF   THE   HOME 

Furniture.  —  There  is  perhaps  no  more  delightful  task  in 
home  making  than  the  selection  of  furniture  for  the  new 
home.  A  few  fortunate  people  are  the  happy  possessors  of 
heirlooms  of  beautiful  Colonial  mahogany  (see  Figs.  23, 
24) .  There  is  always  a  place  for  these  in  a  scheme  of  house 
decoration  because  of  their  beautiful  simplicity  of  line, 
decoration,  and  finish.  They  should  be  treasured  and  pre- 
served. Those  that  have  been  disfigured  by  generations  of 
poor  varnish  may  be  restored.  The  majority  of  young 
people,  however,  in  furnishing  their  new  homes  need  some 
guiding  principles  which  will  help  them  to  select  modern 
furniture  wisely. 

It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  furnishings  express  the 
taste  of  the  individual  making  the  home.  They  are  a  part 
of  the  individual  and  show  his  ideals  for  life  and  standards 
of  taste  and  beauty.  The  ethical  influence  of  well-made  and 
well-designed  furniture  is  difficult  to  estimate,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  features  of  the  really  successful  home. 
It  should  yield  utility  and  comfort,  and  furniture,  in  order 
to  be  beautiful,  should  be  simple  and  strong  in  construction, 
with  good  lines.  It  should  also  be  appropriate.  With  such 
principles  in  mind  there  will  be  fewer  gilt  chairs  selected, 
ornate  and  insufficient  in  strength  to  hold  an  average  person. 

It  is  better  to  furnish  slowly  and  to  choose  one  good 
piece  at  a  time  than  to  buy  whole  "  sets  "  with  superfluous 
pieces.  Most  people  have  too  many  pieces  of  furniture  in 

73 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME 


75 


each  room ;  a  few  of  real  purpose  and  well  placed  are  more 
pleasing.  A  wise  rule  is  to  choose  only  those  pieces  that 
meet  the  needs  of  the  users.  This  necessitates  a  careful 
study  of  old  furniture  as  well  as  the  new  styles  and  produc- 
tions of  the  leading  manufacturers.  It  is  better  to  buy  one 
durable  piece  with  good  lines  than  three  that  will  soon  go 
to  pieces  and  be  of  no  service.  Real  antiques  are  very 
expensive,  but  there  are  to-day  excellent  reproductions  of  the 
furniture  of  our  great  grandfathers,  and  the  simplicity  of 
line  of  the  Colonial  assures  us  that  the  style  will  be  a  per- 
manent one.  We  have  really  no  new  shapes,  but  the  copies 
of  the  old  English  and  Colonial  times  are  so  well  reproduced, 
especially  those  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
that  a  brief  study  of  those  periods  should  help  one  to  choose 
intelligently. 

Our  cabinetmakers  to-day  owe  much  to  the  designs  and 
models  that  originated  in  England  and  were  copied  by  the 


Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 
FIG.  24.  —  Colonial  table. 


Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 

FIG.  24a. — A  sideboard  of  Sheraton 
style.    Notice  simple  lines. 


furniture  makers  of  New  England.  The  influence  of  four 
firms  of  English  cabinetmakers  is  strongly  felt  in  the  repro- 
ductions of  to-day.  They  were  in  reality  artists :  Thomas 
Chippendale,  A.  Heppelwhite  and  Company,  Thomas 


76  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

Sheraton,  James  and  Robert  Adams.  These  were  all 
eighteenth-century  designers.  The  Adams  furniture  was 
formal,  ornate,  and  costly.  The  Chippendale  showed  traces 
of  Dutch  and  Chinese  influence,  and  the  ornamentation  of 
French  style  (see  Fig.  25a).  It  was  characterized  by  fine 


Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.  Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 
FIG.  25.  —  Chair  of  Sheraton  style.  FIG.  25a.  —  Chippendale  chair. 

proportions,  rather  elaborate  carving,  and  the  bow  form  at 
the  top  of  the  back  of  chairs.  The  claw-and-ball  foot  is  also 
characteristic.  The  Heppelwhite  is  characterized  by  graceful 
lines,  and  is  lighter  than  the  heavy  Dutch  styles  which  had 
previously  influenced  English  furniture  making.  Carving 
and  inlay  were  used  in  the  backs  of  chairs  as  well  as  designs 
of  paint  or  Japanned  work.  The  backs  of  the  chairs  were 
oval,  heart,  or  shield  shaped  (see  Fig.  26a).  Sheraton 
styles  were  somewhat  similar  to  Heppelwhite,  but  the  chairs 
were  characterized  by  more  rectangular-shaped  backs 
(see  Fig.  25). 

Other  styles  were  of  such  periods  as  Louis  XIV  and  XV, 
Spain  under  Moorish  influence,  Holland  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 


FURNISHING    OF    THE   HOME  77 

tury,  and  England  under  William  and  Mary  as  well  as  the 
Georges. 

In  the  furnishing  of  the  American  home  of  to-day  the 
styles  of  the  early  Italian  and  French  are  disappearing  and 
the  reproductions  are  rather  of  the  more  informal  types 
from  the  time  of  William  and  Mary  to  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  comfort  and  the  beautiful  lines  of 
these  styles  are  better  adapted  to  our  mode  of  living  than 
the  elaborate  Italian  and  French  designs. 


Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.        Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Fine  Arts. 
FIG.  26. — A  good  modern  chair  of  FIG.  26a.  —  Heppel white  chair. 

Heppelwhite  type. 

"  Mission  "  furniture  as  well  as  the  Craftsman  is  a  modern 
style.  It  lacks  grace,  and  is  often  extremely  clumsy,  but  is 
honest  and  simple.  It  is  made  of  oak  and  will  last  for  genera- 
tions. It  is  comfortable  as  well  as  durable  and  has  a  place 
in  modern  furnishing  (see  Figs.  27,  28,  29). 

"  Cottage  "  furniture  is  well  adapted  to  use  in  summer 
homes  or  where  it  is  necessary  to  furnish  at  moderate  ex- 
pense. It  is  in  good  style,  simply  finished,  and  durable  —  a 


FIG.  27.— A  simple  arrangement  showing  use  of  Craftsman  furniture. 

78 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME  79 

great  improvement  on  the  cheap,  painted,  beflowered  cottage 
furniture  of  the  past.  It  is  dignified,  easily  cared  for,  and 
less  expensive  than  the  Craftsman  (see  Figs.  30,  31). 


FIG.  28.  —  Craftsman  furniture  is  simple  in  line  and  honest. 

Willow  furniture  is  very  attractive,  and  has  its  place  in 
modern  schemes  of  furnishing.  It  is  comfortable  and  artistic 
in  appearance,  and  much  of  it  is  durable  and  inexpensive. 
It  can  be  used  a  long  time  in  the  natural  color  and  then 
stained  or  enameled.  In  selecting  this  style  the  workman- 
ship should  be  carefully  examined  for  weak  places  or  poor 
materials.  Willow  furniture  can  be  used  with  or  without 
cushions,  and  is  most  serviceable.  Very  often  for  expensive 
interiors  upholstering  of  elaborate  velvets  and  other  textiles 
is  used  for  willow  furniture  (see  Figs.  32  and  33). 


FIG.  29.  — A  living  room  showing  the  use  of  Craftsman  furniture. 


Courtesy  of  William  Leavens  &  Co. 
FIG.  30.  —  "  Cottage  "  furniture. 
80 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME 


81 


Bent-wood  furniture,  serviceable  and  simple  in  construc- 
tion, is  offered  in  the  shops  in  variety  of  design  in  combina- 


Courtesy  of  William  Leavens  &  Co. 
FIG.  31.  —  "  Cottage ' '  furniture. 

tion  with  cane  or  without.     It  finds  its  place  in  decoration  of 
simple  rooms,  especially  bedrooms. 

The  woods  used  principally  in  the 
making  of  Colonial  furniture  were 
mahogany,  rosewood,  walnut,  cherry, 
and  birch.  In  some  furniture  we  find, 
instead  of  the  solid  mahogany,  some 
soft  wood  or  occasionally  mahogany 
backing  veneered  with  a  layer  of 
mahogany.  This  was  not  sham,  but 
utility,  for  by  cutting  the  veneer  to 
run  in  opposite  direction  to  the  un- 
derwood, the  maker  provided  against 
the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  shrink 
in  one  direction.  The  period  of  wal- 
G 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Popular  Shop." 

FIG.  32. — Willow  chair  for 

living  or  bed  room. 


82  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

nut  furniture  in  America  was  a  poor  one.  The  wood  was 
subjected  to  so  many  groovings,  and  the  furniture  orna- 
mented with  so  many  poor  designs  stuck  on  the  surface, 
that  little  of  the  old  walnut  was  beautiful  or  is  of  use  to-day. 
It  was  made  during  a  period  of  debased  design  in  all  art. 

Draperies  and  curtains.  —  The  heavy  dust-catching 
draperies,  long  curtains,  and  hangings  used  in  many  houses 
in  the  past  seem  to  be  giving  way  to  simpler  forms,  and  in 
many  American  homes  to-day  a  more  rational  system  of 
decoration  with  curtains  and  draperies  is  being  followed. 
The  sill-length  curtains  and  overhangings  and  the  lighter 
draperies  are  better  adapted  to  the  modest  home. 

The  draperies  add  to  or  detract  from  the  artistic  whole. 
As  a  rule  the  portiere  should  be  of  the  same  "  value  "as  the 
walls.  Plain  walls  can  be  relieved  by  figured  portieres,  and 
figured  walls  are  made  more  interesting  with  plain  hangings. 
The  principle  to  bear  in  mind  in  choosing  should  be  sim- 
plicity, suitability,  and  harmony  with  the  other  furnishings 
and  decorations.  Select  hangings  in  keeping  also  with  the 
purpose  of  the  room.  A  velvet  hanging  is  not  appropriate 
in  a  bedroom.  If  plain  textures  are  desirable,  there  are 
many  beautiful  reps,  poplins,  casement  cloths,  soft  silks, 
denims,  arras,  and  other  material.  Velvets  of  many  kinds 
make  a  rich,  plain  finishing,  and  many  of  the  beautiful  designs 
of  old  textiles  from  the  palaces,  churches,  and  museums  of 
Europe  are  being  reproduced.  These  fabrics  with  brocade 
and  pile  surface  are  interesting  in  dignified  rooms  where  the 
effect  desired  is  to  produce  the  high  lights  and  contrasting 
deep  shadows. 

Figured  fabrics  are  many,  from  the  old-fashioned  English 
chintzes,  cretonnes,  and  block-printed  linens  to  the  more 
expensive  silk  brocades  and  wool  tapestries. 

Portieres  hung  straight  to  escape  the  floor  are  the  present 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME  83 

style,  and  are  more  dignified  than  many  overhanging  arrange- 
ments. By  lining  it  is  possible  to  use  only  one  set  in  a  door- 
way and  have  the  lining  harmonize  with  the  room  it  faces. 
Good  taste  in  hanging  implies  that  they  serve  their  purpose 
for  decoration  and  use,  and  this  in  a  harmonious  way  with 
thought  of  good  lines,  color,  and  design. 

Curtains  are  used  for  decorative  purpose  at  windows  to 
soften  the  lines  of  the  wood  casings  and  to  make  the  room 
less  stiff.  They  are  placed  to  prevent  those  outside  from 
looking  into  a  room  or  to  shut  out  unpleasant  sights. 
Windows  are  for  ventilation  and  light,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  an  opportunity  to  those  wishing  to  look  beyond 
the  confines  of  the  narrow  room ;  curtains  should  not  inter- 
fere with  these  aims.  Rooms  would  be  prisons  otherwise. 
Curtaining  should  not  obstruct  the  view  unless  it  is  an  un- 
sightly one,  and  they  should  not  obscure  it  except  for  the 
purpose  of  privacy. 

Long,  clumsy  lace  curtains  are  seldom  used  to-day,  but 
have  been  replaced  by  curtains  made  of  many  lovely  ma- 
terials from  the  inexpensive  madras,  scrim,  cheesecloth, 
lawn,  swiss,  and  linen  to  the  more  expensive  curtains  of 
brussels  net  and  linen  with  inserts  of  filet  and  cluny  lace. 
Costliness  does  not  always  mean  that  the  best  has  been 
chosen,  but  in  selection  the  material  should  be  appropriate, 
sensible,  and  harmonious,  and  many  inexpensive  honest  ma- 
terials of  swiss  and  cretonne,  when  used  skillfully  and  in  har- 
mony with  surroundings,  are  more  beautiful  and  artistic  than 
imitation  velvets,  laces,  and  nets  which  may  have  cost 
more  at  the  beginning.  Plain  curtains  of  pongee,  scrim,  or 
simple  muslin  look  well  in  some  rooms  when  decorated  with 
simple  stenciled  designs. 

There  are  many  simple  ways  of  hanging  curtains.  Cur- 
tains suspended  from  a  brass  rod  in  the  straight-line  effect, 


84  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

with  or  without  a  valance,  are  very  pleasing.  They  may 
be  caught  back  simply,  to  admit  light  and  air.  For  bath- 
rooms, or  other  rooms  where  sash  curtains  are  desirable,  they 
may  be  fastened  to  the  window  frame  to  prevent  them  from 
blowing  out,  or  they  may  be  placed  on  a  rod  at  the  proper 
height  from  the  sill. 


Courtesy  of  Miss  Hettie  R.  Meade. 
FIG.  33.  — Willow  furniture  is  well  adapted  to  this  simple  bedroom. 

Pictures,  bric-a-brac,  and  small  furnishings.  —  Again  in 
selection  one  is  confronted  by  the  question  of  use  and  reason 
for  being.  Pictures  and  bric-a-brac  are  not  of  use  except 
as  they  exert  a  silent  influence.  Pictures,  casts,  ornaments 
used  to  beautify  should  do  this.  With  so  many  splendid 
reproductions  from  famous  artists  available,  in  sepia  prints, 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME  85 

etchings,  and  photographs,  there  is  no  excuse  for  filling  one's 
home  with  worthless  chromes.  A  few  pictures,  well  chosen, 
are  preferable  to  many.  The  Japanese  place  but  one  work  of 
art  at  a  time.  In  American  homes  we  usually  have  too 
many  pictures.  If  one  is  so  burdened,  it  is  possible  to  put 
some  aside  and  change  the  subjects  from  time  to  time. 
Pictures  of  personal  interest,  as  photographs  of  friends  and 
personal  favorites  of  reproduction,  should  be  placed  in  the 
bedroom.  In  the  hallways  and  general  rooms  subjects 
likely  to  be  of  interest  to  others  are  suggested.  There  is  a 
wonderful  fund  from  which  to  make  selection  :  reproductions 
from  Millet,  Corot,  Whistler,  Abbey,  Sargent,  and  hundreds 
of  others  having  artistic  value,  as  well  as  photographs  of 
exquisite  bits  of  scenery  and  dignified  old  ruins.  Family 
portraits,  when  really  artistic,  have  a  place  in  the  living 
room. 

The  framing  of  pictures  is  important;  mats  should  be 
carefully  chosen ;  white  ones  are,  as  a  rule,  too  conspicuous 
in  places  where  the  furnishing  is  in  brown  or  green  or  dark 
values.  Soft  browns  and  grays  are  preferable.  The  frame 
of  a  picture  should  be  neat,  simple,  durable,  and  inconspicu- 
ous. A  frame  should  not  be  noticeable,  but  it  should  bring 
out  the  attractiveness  of  the  picture.  Gilt  frames  are  re- 
served generally  for  oil  paintings.  The  hanging  of  pictures 
requires  thought.  Avoid  having  too  many  pictures  on  the 
walls  ;  they  collect  dust,  and  the  effect  is  not  artistic.  The 
cord  or  wire  should  be  as  simple  and  inconspicuous  as  pos- 
sible. Vertical  wires  with  two  hooks  are  preferable  to 
slanting  lines  where  but  one  hook  is  used.  The  size  and 
shape  of  the  picture  should  be  considered  in  relation  to  the 
wall  space,  and  an  orderly,  dignified  arrangement  made. 
Many  pictures  are  hung  too  high.  A  diagonal  effect  in  placing 
pictures  is  usually  displeasing. 


86  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

In  choosing  bric-a-brac  for  decoration  or  use,  keep  in 
mind  the  principles  of  simplicity  and  harmony.  Rhythmic 
lines  that  flow  one  into  another  are  the  most  beautiful. 
Some  ornaments  may  serve  a  use  other  than  beauty,  as 
jardineres  of  brass  or  pottery,  brass  candlesticks,  trays,  and 
bowls  for  flowers.  A  few  pieces  well  chosen  are  of  value, 
but  a  cluttered  shelf  or  "  whatnot "  full  of  bric-a-brac  is  a 
disturbing  element  in  the  repose  of  any  room.  Many  of 
these  things  are  valuable,  but  not  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
home  maker  who  has  the  principles  of  simplicity  and  harmony 
in  mind.  A  few  flowers,  well  arranged,  or  some  growing 
plants  add  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  a  home,  and  are 
far  more  beautiful  and  graceful  than  cheap  vases,  statuary, 
and  other  useless,  dust-collecting  atrocities. 

The  furnishing  of  the  bedroom.  —  A  bedroom  is  primarily 
a  place  for  rest.  Sometimes  it  serves  also  the  purpose  of 
sitting  room  or  study  for  individual  members  of  the  family. 
If  it  serves  this  double  purpose,  furnishings  may  be  intro- 
duced that  one  would  not  put  into  a  room  used  only  for 
sleeping  and  dressing.  There  should  be  a  comfortable  place 
for  reading,  for  writing,  and  for  sleeping;  these  are  the 
essentials  of  the  combination  room.  The  room  should  have 
only  the  most  simple  furnishings  and  those  which  can 
easily  be  kept  clean.  The  ideal  bedroom  should  have  good 
ventilation  and  should  be  situated  on  the  sunny  side  of  the 
house.  The  floor  should  be  of  wood  with  rugs ;  light-color 
values  are  preferable  for  the  walls  and  woodwork  in  bed- 
rooms, and  the  curtains  and  bed  valances,  if  used,  should  be 
such  as  can  easily  and  frequently  be  laundered.  Metal 
beds  are  the  most  sanitary.  The  mattress  and  springs  can 
be  kept  in  good  condition  with  fitted  muslin  covers.  The 
bed  should  be  comfortable.  Good  springs  and  mattresses 
are  an  economy.  One  third  of  life  is  spent  in  bed,  and 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME 


87 


efficiency  depends  much  on  the  way  one  rests ;  therefore 
thought  should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  bed  furnishings. 
Good  light  blankets,  sheets  of  right  width,  and  good 
pillows  all  add  to  comfort.  A  few  well-placed  pictures  are 
restful,  but  too  many  are  distracting  and  have  no  place  in 


Courtesy  of  John  Wanamaker  Co. 
FIG.  34. — A  girl's  bedroom. 

a  room  intended  for  rest  unless  they  are  of  personal  interest 
to  the  occupant.  Few  ornaments  are  necessary.  They  add 
to  the  labor  of  cleaning  the  room.  Beware  of  the  room 
cluttered  with  all  kinds  of  hangings,  ornaments,  and  knick- 
knacks  which  collect  dust  and  possibly  disease  germs. 

Wicker  furniture  with  muslin  and  chintz  curtains  is  well 
adapted   to   the   furnishing   of   some   bedrooms  (see   Figs, 


88  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

33  and  34).  Old  mahogany  pieces  or  reproductions  of  them 
are  always  interesting.  Brass  beds  when  of  very  simple 
design  are  good,  and  white  metal  beds  always  cleanly  and 
attractive.  Bedroom  furniture  in  "  sets  "  is  not  always  the 
most  pleasing  furnishing  for  the  bedroom.  Chairs  of  vary- 
ing styles  add  interest  to  a  room,  and  relieve  the  monotony 
of  set  pieces.  The  bedroom  should  provide  a  place  for  the 
storage  of  clothing.  There  should  be  a.  comfortable  chair 
well  placed  with  regard  to  light  for  reading  by  day  or  night, 
and  a  study  desk  or  table  for  writing  purposes.  "  Cottage 
furniture  "  for  bedroom  purposes,  where  expense  must  be 
considered,  is  attractive,  relieved  with  a  comfortable  wicker 
chair  or  two. 

The  bathroom.  —  The  furnishings  for  this  room  should 
be  as  simple  as  possible.  The  walls  are  most  sanitary  if 
painted,  and  the  addition  of  tiling  as  a  surbase  adds  to  the 
ease  with  which  they  can  be  kept  clean.  The  aim  should  be 
the  maximum  of  comfort  and  cleanliness  with  the  least  care. 
The  floors  can  be  tiled,  painted,  or  of  hard  wood,  and  the 
woodwork  painted  or  varnished.  There  should  be  a  com- 
fortable rug  and  a  bathmat.  Bath  tubs  resting  on  their 
own  base  rather  than  on  feet  are  more  cleanly,  as  dust  can- 
not collect  beneath,  and  rounded  corners  and  edges  of  the 
room  are  more  sanitary.  There  should  be  plenty  of  rods 
and  hooks  for  towels  according  to  the  number  using  the 
room.  It  is  preferable  to  have  a  sunny  bathroom.  It 
should  be  well  ventilated  and  the  plumbing  absolutely  with- 
out question.  Mirrors  and  a  closet  or  cabinet  are  almost 
indispensable,  and  a  small  stool  adds  greatly  to  comfort. 
A  basket  or  bag  for  soiled  clothing  is  a  necessity  (see 
Fig.  16). 

The  dining  room.  —  This  room  should  offer  cheer  and 
comfort,  for  in  it  much  of  the  social  life  of  the  home  takes 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME 


89 


place.  The  wall  covering  should  be  carefully  chosen  in  rela- 
tion to  light  and  should  not  be  too  dull.  Wainscoting  is 
effective  in  some  dining  rooms.  In  others  the  paper  is  so 
arranged  that  the  lower  part  of  the  wall  is  in  plain  color 
and  a  wide  border  (J  height  of  wall)  is  applied  above.  An 


Courtesy  of  Miss  Hettie  R.  Mea&e. 

FIG.  35. — Notice  the  good  lines  of  the  chair  and  sideboard  in  this  simple 

dining  room. 

open  fireplace  that  can  be  used  adds  to  the  cheer.  The 
furniture  —  table,  chairs,  and  side  table  —  should  be  care- 
fully selected.  Large  pieces  should  not  be  chosen  for  a 
small  dining  room,  and  simple  outlines  are  much  more  agree- 
able than  heavy  carving  and  claw-and-ball  feet,  which  collect 


90  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

dust  and  are  cumbersome  (see  Fig.  35).  A  few  well- 
placed  pictures  of  general  interest  are  decorative,  and  plants 
add  much  to  the  cozy  effect.  The  floor  is  most  hygienic  if 
of  wood  with  a  rug  that  can  be  removed  and  cleaned  fre- 
quently. One  large  rug  is  preferable  in  a  dining  room  to 
several  small  ones,  and  one  of  not  too  deep  pile  is  more 
cleanly.  Body  Brussels  and  Wilton  are  serviceable  if  one 
cannot  afford  an  Oriental  rug.  A  display  of  dishes,  orna- 
ments, and  bric-a-brac  is  not  good  taste  in  a  dining  room. 
Plate  rails  collect  dust.  A  few  articles  of  table  service, 
candelabra,  or  a  dish  or  two  may  be  attractively  placed  on 
the  side  table  or  sideboard.  Dishes  and  most  silver  should 
be  kept  in  closets  rather  than  displayed  in  china  closets 
with  glass  fronts.  Few  dishes  are  really  good  art.  The 
sideboard  with  a  long  drawer  for  linen  and  shallow  drawers 
for  silver  is  serviceable.  The  curtains  in  a  dining  room 
should  be  placed  to  admit  good  light.  Scrim,  net,  and  simple 
muslins  are  best  for  the  modest  home.  When  there  is  an 
interesting  view  of  garden  or  landscape  from '  the  dining 
room,  a  large  window  carefully  curtained  to  disclose  the  view 
adds  much  to  the  charm  and  beauty  of  the  room  (see  Fig- 
36). 

The  living  room.  —  The  same  general  principles  of  sim- 
plicity, beauty,  and  comfort  should  be  applied  in  the  fur- 
nishing of  the  living  room.  In  few  modest  homes  of  to-day 
can  a  room  be  spared  for  occasional  use  as  parlor.  A  living 
room,  which  answers  for  sitting  room  and  library,  may  be 
so  planned  that  one's  friends  can  be  entertained  there  rather 
than  in  a  stiff  parlor  (see  Fig.  37).  In  most  homes  where 
entertaining  is  of  an  informal  nature  the  "  parlor "  of 
former  days  is  no  longer  known. 

The  living  room  should  offer  cheer  and  comfort,  and  good 
common  sense  should  be  used  in  the  selection  of  furnishings, 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME 


91 


useful  as  well  as  beautiful  (see  Fig.  38) .  It  is  here  that  the 
family  assembles  and  friends  are  entertained,  therefore  com- 
fort and  harmonious  furnishings  should  greet  the  occupants. 
Soft-colored  wall  coverings  of  one  or  two  values  or  a  sim- 
ple pattern,  with  woodwork  to  harmonize,  are  preferable.  A 


Courtesy  of  Story  and  Triggs,  London. 
FIG.  36.  — The  "  Byron  "  dining  room.     Georgian  furniture. 

wood  floor  with  small  rugs  or  one  large  rug,  a  fireplace  with 
comfortable  chairs  or  davenport  near,  a  couch  and  pillows 
well  placed,  a  good  table  for  lamp  and  books,  a  desk  with  a 
good  light  —  are  the  essentials.  Bookcases  can  be  arranged 
in  this  room  if  there  is  no  separate  library  (see  Fig.  37). 
The  furniture  should  be  simple  and  dignified  in  outline. 
The  old-fashioned  "  sets  "  of  upholstered  tufted  furniture 


92 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


are  no  longer  considered  desirable.  A  few  wicker  chairs  in 
the  living  room  add  greatly  to  the  degree  of  comfort ;  they  are 
easy  to  move  about,  and  can  be  ordered  in  colors  to  har- 
monize with  the  furnishings.  Avoid  cluttering ;  have  only 
the  essentials  of  comfort,  convenience,  and  beauty.  Curtains 
should  be  simple  and  arranged  to  admit  light  and  air.  Plants, 
a  few  dignified  vases,  a  bowl  of  brass,  some  well-chosen 


Courtesy  of  Sherwin  Williams  Co. 
FIG.  37. — A  living  room  which  suggests  comfort  in  the  arrangement  of  its 

furnishings. 

prints  of  good  subjects  will  be  found  sufficient  decoration. 
Arrange  the  furniture  in  relation  to  light  with  the  idea  of 
comfort  for  reading,  writing,  and  the  other  home  activities 
in  this  much-used  room. 

The  reception  room.  —  In  many  houses  a  small  reception 
room  is  almost  a  necessity.  It  is  a  room  for  occasional  use, 
and  when  space  permits,  can  be  utilized  to  great  advantage. 
It  is  there  that  people  can  be  received  who  are  not  admitted 
to  the  intimacies  of  living  room  or  library.  It  may  con- 


FURNISHING   OF   THE   HOME 


93 


veniently  serve  also  as  a  music  room  if  the  young  people  of 
the  house  must  practice. 

The  treatment  of  this  room  should  be  formal.  As  a  whole 
it  should  be  in  lighter  color  value  than  the  living  room.  It 
is  the  place  where  choice  pictures  should  be  hung,— some 
oil  paintings,  when  not  too  heavy,  and  selected  etchings. 


Courtesy  of  Miss  Hettie  R.  Meade. 

FIG.  38.  — This  shows  the  use  of  the  willow  swing  suitable  for  a  country  living 
room.    Notice  its  position  before  the  fire,  suggesting  comfort  and  cheer. 

Avoid  gilt  furniture,  statuary,  and  other  frivolous  furnish- 
ings without  use  or  beauty.  A  well-finished  floor  with  a 
few  good  rugs,  dignified  chairs  and  sofa,  a  palm  or  other 
plant  well  placed,  and  the  piano  and  stool,  make  it  a  place 
for  formal  use. 


94  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

The  hall  of  every  home  should  represent  to  the  visitor 
something  of  the  ideals  and  standards  of  taste  of  the  family. 
There  should  greet  the  visitor  orderliness,  cheer,  and  dignity, 
—  an  introduction  to  the  life  within.  Very  little  furnishing  is 
necessary.  The  essentials  are  few,  a  chair  where  space  per- 


Courtesy  of  Pratt  Institute. 
FIG.  39.  —  A  glimpse  of  a  simple  dining  room  from  the  living  room. 

mits,  an  umbrella  stand,  a  place  for  hanging  a  few  wraps  or 
hats,  and  a  mirror.  If  space  permits,  a  table  is  often  useful. 
The  family  wardrobe  of  coats,  rubbers,  and  gloves  should 
not  be  deposited  in  the  hall  space;  a  closet  at  the  rear  is 
quite  necessary,  or  a  few  hooks  screened. 

The  wall  and  floor  covering  should  be  chosen  with  care. 
It  should  express  cheer  and  dignity.     Unless  the  hall  is  very 


FURNISHING   OF    THE   HOME  95 

large,  small  patterns  of  wall  paper  look  best,  and  stripes  are 
usually  a  success  unless  the  stairway  is  very  long  and  the 
lines  accentuate  the  height.  The  floor  covering  should  be 
unobtrusive,  and  of  a  color  that  will  not  show  soil  or  foot- 
prints. Many  ugly  pieces  of  hall  furniture  destroy  all  feel- 
ing of  harmony  and  beauty.  A  simply  framed  mirror  and 
a  good  chair  are  decidedly  to  be  preferred.  Curtains  of 
muslin,  scrim,  or  silk  are  serviceable.  A  golden-colored  china 
silk  with  brown  hall  furnishings  adds  light  and  cheer. 

The  kitchen.  —  The  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in 
furnishing  the  kitchen.  It  is  of  primary  importance  that 
everything  in  it  be  easily  kept  clean.  There  are  numerous 
floor  coverings,  but  good  linoleum  is  perhaps  most  satis- 
factory for  the  average  home.  It  can  be  kept  clean  easily 
and  lasts  a  long  time.  The  selection  of  wall  covering,  paint, 
and  woodwork  should  be  as  carefully  made  as  for  the  living 
room,  and  with  the  same  idea  of  harmony  in  color  and  line. 

The  kitchen  furnishings  should  be  so  arranged  that  energy 
and  time  are  saved.  A  small  room  where  articles  are  at 
hand  is  most  convenient.  A  light  arranged  near  the  stove 
and  good  light  near  the  sink  are  essential.  Furnishings  to 
promote  the  comfort  of  the  worker,  a  high  stool,  a  sink  of 
sufficient  height  to  prevent  backache,  convenient  utensils 
near  at  hand,  and  provision  for  the  protection  of  all  articles 
from  dust  should  be  carefully  considered  in  furnishing  this 
very  important  room.  The  kitchen  should  be  carefully 
screened  —  both  at  windows  and  doors.  A  plant  or  two 
on  the  window  sill  furnishes  cheer.  A  good  clock  and  a 
book  shelf  for  cookbooks  are  necessary. 


96  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  will  influence  your  selection  of  floor  covering  for  a  bed- 
room, living  room,  dining  room  ? 

2.  Name  four  English  furniture  designers  whose  influence  has 
affected  modern  furniture  making.     Give  characteristics  of  each 
type.     Try  to  find  pictures  of  old  or  modern  chairs  of  each  type. 

3.  Bring  samples  of  net,  Swisses,  or  other  simple  curtain  materials. 
Pin  on  bulletin  board  in  classroom  for  comparison  of  price  and 
width.     What  reasons  should  influence  your  use  of  curtains  ? 

4.  If  possible,  as  a  class  plan  an  excursion  with  your  teacher  to 
see  old  furniture  and  textiles  in  the  museum,  or  modern  furniture 
at  some  good  shop. 

5.  What  place  has  willow  furniture  and  chintz  in  the  furnish- 
ing of  modern  American  homes  ? 

6.  What  are  your  ideas  for  the  use  of  pictures,  plants,  and  bric- 
a-brac  in  a  home  ? 

7.  Plan  how  you  would  spend  (a)  $700,  (6)  $1000  in  furnishing 
and  decorating  a  six-room  apartment  or  small  house.     Give  items 
of  expense  for  each  room ;  also  samples  of  wall  covering  and  cur- 
tains.    If  possible  show  pictures  of  furniture  for  each  room.    This 
might  be  a  class  problem  and  each  girl  plan  a  room  after  approximate 
division  of  money  has  been  made. 

.  8.  Plan  decoration  and  furnishing  of  a  girl's  bedroom  just  as 
you  would  like  it,  keeping  in  mind  the  principles  that  you  have 
learned.  It  might  be  a  combination  of  bedroom  and  study.  In 
your  art  class  sketch  the  bedroom  and  show  possible  coloring  and 
arrangement  of  furniture. 

9.  Describe  an  ideal  living  room  in  a  modest  home. 

10.  Describe  an  ideal  kitchen. 


PAKT  II 

TEXTILES:    MATERIALS  AND  HOW  THEY  ARE  MADE 

CHAPTER  VIII 
COTTON 

Reasons  for  the  study  of  textiles.  —  Woman  is  the  chief 
purchaser,  and  upon  her  rests  the  responsibility  in  household 
affairs  of  making  each  dollar  procure  full  value.  Many 
women  spend  foolishly,  and  this  is  due  principally  to  igno- 
rance. Women  should  have  a  knowledge  of  textiles  so 
that  the  materials  used  in  the  household  for  clothing  and 
furnishings  may  be  purchased  intelligently.  This  knowl- 
edge means  a  study  of  the  processes  of  modern  manu- 
facture of  materials,  their  properties,  and  the  laws 
governing  the  adulterations  and  fraudulent  labeling  of 
materials.  In  the  present  day  of  high  prices,  it  is  essential 
that  girls,  who  sooner  or  later  assume  the  responsibilities 
of  the  home,  should  make  a  study  of  these  important 
things. 

Cotton  is  the  most  common  and  the  cheapest  of  the 
important  textile  fibers  used  in  the  manufacture  of  materials. 
It  is  a  vegetable  fiber,  and  a  cotton  field  of  unfolding  bolls 
with  the  soft  white  cotton  fibers  within  is  a  lovely  sight 
(see  Fig.  40).  Cotton  is  the  white,  downy  covering  of 
the  seeds  that  are  borne  in  the  capsule  after  the  beautiful 
flower  has  disappeared  (see  Fig.  41).  Nature  provided  the 
H  97 


98  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

seed  with  its  soft  covering  so  that,  in  the  wild  state, 
the  wind  would  catch  the  fiber  and  carry  the  seeds  far  and 
wide. 

Where  grown.  —  Cotton  is  a  native  of  many  countries. 
Columbus  found  it  growing  in  the  West  Indies  and  Cortez 
in  Peru.  Theophrastus  wrote  about  cotton  in  India  three 
centuries  before  Christ.  Biblical  references  mention  cotton 
as  early  as  519  B.C.  Herodotus,  "  the  father  of  History," 
in  his  book  of  travels  speaks  of  the  cotton  plant.  There 
are,  however,  many  myths  and  fables  as  to  its  nature  and 
origin.  It  was  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  tree  in  which  the 
buds  yielded  tiny,  woolly  lambs  which  stooped  and  grazed 
about  the  plant.  The  principal  countries  producing  it 
to-day  are  the  United  States,  India,  Egypt,  and  Brazil.  In 
our  own  country,  about  30,000,000  acres  are  devoted  to 
cultivation  of  cotton,  and  about  15,000,000  bales  are  pro- 
duced annually.  Texas  leads  the  states  in  the  production 
of  cotton.  The  fiber  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
The  best  grows  in  sandy,  loamy  soil  which  will  retain  the 
proper  amount  of  moisture  as  well  as  heat.  It  grows  best 
between  35°  north  latitude  and  45°  south. 

Varieties  of  cotton.  —  The  value  of  the  cotton  fiber  de- 
pends upon  its  quality.  Strength,  length,  and  evenness  are 
affected  by  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  (see  Fig.  42). 
Over  one  hundred  varieties  are  known  by  the  agriculturist. 
A  microscopical  exminaation  of  the  cotton  fiber  shows  that 
a  fully  developed  ripe  fiber  has  the  appearance  of  a  piece  of 
twisted  rubber  tubing  (see  Fig.  87).  The  twist  is  of  great 
economic  importance  and  aids  in  spinning  as  well  as  pro- 
ducing a  more  elastic  fabric.  Its  length  varies  from  one  half 
to  two  and  one  half  inches,  usually  one  to  one  and  one  half 
inches.  Unripe  fibers  do  not  swell  or  twist  as  much  and 
consequently  do  not  accept  the  dye  as  readily.  They  can 


100 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


be  easily  distinguished  if  used  in  colored  cotton  fabrics.  The 
most  important  species  of  cotton  are  the  Gossypium  her- 
baceum,  G.  arboreum,  G.  hirsutum,  G.  barbadense,  and  G. 
peruvianum.  Within  these  five  species  over  one  hundred 
varieties  are  recognized. 

Gossypium  herbaceum  bears  a  short  fiber  or  staple,  and  the 
seeds  are  covered  with  a  short  gray  down.     The  plant  grows 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
FIG.  41.  —  Cotton  bolls. 

about  five  feet  in  height  and  bears  a  yellow  flower.  Many 
varieties  of  Egyptian  and  Indian  cotton  are  in  this  class. 
The  cottons  called  "  Nankeen  cottons  "  are  made  from  the 
fiber  of  this  variety.  This  grows  in  China  and  India  and 
is  yellow  in  color. 

Gossypium  barbadense  is  a  long  staple  cotton.  The  plant 
grows  to  be  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height  and  bears  also  a  yellow 
blossom  (see  Fig.  43).  The  seeds  are  black  and  smooth, 
and  unlike  other  varieties.  Sea  Island  cotton  is  of  this 
species  and  grows  chiefly  off  the  coast  of  Florida  and  Georgia. 
This  species  grows  best  by  the  sea  and  yields  the  finest 


102  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

grade  of  cotton,  since  its  staple  is  silky  and  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  length. 

Gossypium  hirsutum  is  so  called  because  its  leaves,  stems, 
branches,  and  seeds  are  of  a  hairy  nature.  The  plant  grows  to 
be  six  feet  in  height.  The  fiber  is  short  and  the  seeds  covered 
with  soft  green  down. 

Gossypium  arbor eum  grows  higher  than  other  cotton,  about 
twenty  feet  at  maximum.  It  is  also  called  religiosum  be- 
cause the  variety  was  used  in  spinning  priests'  robes  in  India. 
The  fiber  is  short  and  the  seeds  covered  with  green  fuzz. 
The  flowers  of  the  plant  are  brown  and  purple-red. 

Gossypium  peruvianum  is  considered  a  native  of  Peru  and 
Brazil,  and  has  all  the  characteristics  of  the  barbadense.  It 
is  harsh  and  rather  wiry  in  fiber  and  is  used  for  wool  adul- 
teration because  of  this  characteristic. 

Cotton  culture  in  the  United  States.  —  The  United  States 
produces  three  fourths  of  all  cotton  used.  It  was  not  until 
1621  that  it  was  grown  for  fiber  in  this  country.  It  has 
become  since  then  one  of  the  most  important  crops  in  the 
world.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  wonderful  inventions  in 
cotton  machinery  during  the  last  three  hundred  years. 
Cotton  planters  prepare  their  fields  in  January  or  February 
and  plant  in  April  or  May,  and  the  picking  begins  about  the 
middle  of  August  and  lasts  until  December.  This  period  is 
a  most  anxious  one  for  the  farmer.  He  prefers  light  showery 
weather  for  the  best  development  of  his  crop.  Frosts  are 
most  destructive.  There  are  many  enemies  which  the 
farmer  has  to  fight :  the  boll  weevil,  the  cotton  caterpillar, 
the  bollworm,  lice,  and  fungous  growths.  A  large  quantity  of 
cotton  is  destroyed  annually  in  this  way.  The  United  States 
government  has  rendered  much  assistance  in  studying  these 
pests,  but  much  is  still  to  be  done.  One  acre  will  pro- 
duce a  crop  of  from  three  to  six  hundred  pounds  of  cotton. 


COTTON  103 

Estimates  of  the  cost  per  pound  of  growing  cotton  vary  from 
five  to  nine  cents.  In  the  old  days  cotton  was  grown  prin- 
cipally by  the  planters,  who  had  large  areas  under  cultiva- 
tion with  armies  of  slaves.  It  is  now  also  grown  by  the 
small  farmers  who  own  their  farms  or  rent  them  and  also 
work  on  shares.  Labor  is  so  uncertain  that  owners  of  land 
cannot  work  individually,  but  must  share  with  a  tenant 
who  helps  in  the  work.  The  cotton  is  gathered  by  young 
and  old,  and  this  is  a  tedious  task.  It  is  picked  with  the 
sun  upon  it,  and  when  exposed  to  this  heat  becomes  dry  and 
hard.  It  is  put  in  marketable  shape  in  the  form  of  a  bale, 
and  is  then  taken  to  the  gin  house,  where  it  is  cleansed  and 
the  seed  removed.  Each  cotton  boll  contains  thirty  to  forty 
seeds  and  each  tiny  fiber  is  attached  at  one  end  to  a  seed. 
The  process  of  separating  seed  from  fiber  is  called  ginning. 

Cotton  ginning.  —  Most  of  the  cotton  of  to-day  is  ginned 
by  machinery.  In  India  and  China  the  foot  gins  and  other 
primitive  types  are  still  used.  The  primitive  hand  types 
are  somewhat  like  a  household  clothes-wringing  machine. 
The  rollers  separate,  but  do  not  clean  very  well  —  and 
the  process  is  a  slow  one.  A  woman  using  the  "  churka 
gin  "  could  separate  three  pounds  per  day  at  a  wage  of  five 
cents.  In  the  modern  steam  ginnery  in  one  hour,  on  one 
gin,  it  is  possible  to  gin  enough  cotton  to  make  a  bale  of 
five  hundred  pounds.  Eli  Whitney  invented  the  saw  cotton 
gin,  for  which  a  patent  was  issued  by  George  Washington  in 
1784.  Water  power  was  soon  used  in  running  these  saw 
gin  mills.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  could  never 
have  become  a  great  industry  but  for  this  American  inven- 
tion. It  was  needed  because  of  the  wonderful  improvements 
in  spinning  and  weaving  machinery,  and  this  gin  made  pos- 
sible a  large  supply  of  the  raw  material.  The  saw  gin  is 
made  of  a  series  of  circular  saws.  The  cotton  is  delivered 


104 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


to  the  gin  box,  one  side  of  which  is  grated.  The  saws  revolve 
through  this  grid,  which  is  fine  enough  to  permit  the  fiber 
to  be  drawn  through  but  not  the  seed.  The  seeds  are  heavy 
and  fall,  and  are  used  later  for  various  by-products.  The 
fiber  thus  pulled  from  the  seeds  by  the  saws  is  brushed  off 
by  a  revolving  brush  and  delivered  from  the  machine. 


•  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Lepl.  <.f  AjricuJure. 

FIG.  43.  —  Cotton  leaf  and  flowers. 

Much  American  cotton  is.  full  of  knots  or  "  neps,"  caused 
by  the  saw  gin  operating  too  quickly.  This  gin  can  clean 
under  average  conditions  about  three  hundred  pounds  per 
hour.  Cotton  is  also  ginned  by  means  of  the  roller  gin, 
which  is  perhaps  less  destructive.  This  was  the  primitive 
method.  The  best  long  staple  cotton,  the  Sea  Island, .  is 
ginned  on  the  modern  roller  gin.  The  saw  gin  is  better 
adapted  to  the  upland  or  short  staple  cotton.  One  early 
form  of  roller  gin  invented  by  Mr.  Bissell  of  Georgia  was 
used  as  early  as  1788.  Mr.  McCarthy  of  Alabama  invented 
a  roller  gin  in  1840,  and  with  steam  power  this  gin  will  pro- 
duce about  one  thousand  pounds  or  two  bales  per  day.  The 
gin  houses  and  baling  presses  were  formerly  on  the  planta- 


COTTON  105 

tions,  but  now  the  processes  of  ginning  and  baling  are  com- 
pleted at  central  points. 

Cotton  baling.  —  The  cotton  is  delivered  from  the  gin  to 
the  baling  press.  Boxes  the  shape  of  the  American  cotton 
bale  are  prepared  with  jute  bagging  and  the  cotton  delivered 
into  them.  There  are  usually  two  boxes,  one  of  which  is 
filled  while  the  other  is  pressed  by  means  of  a  screw.  This 
bale  usually  weighs  about  five  hundred  pounds,  and  fifteen 
hundred  pounds  of  seed  cotton  are  used  in  producing  it. 
After  being  bound  with  sheet-iron  bands  it  is  ready  for  the 
local  market  or  mill.  The  size  of  the  American  bale  is 
about  54"  X  27"  X  16". 

For  shipping  at  steamboat  piers  as  ocean  freight,  it  is 
necessary  to  reduce  the  size,  as  rates  are  fixed  according  to 
space  occupied.  The  machines  used  to  reduce  the  size  of 
the  bales  are  called  compressors,  and  are  so  powerful  that 
the  bale  can  be  compressed  to  seven  inches  in  thickness. 
This  means  great  economy  in  transportation.  Bales  are 
shipped  also  by  rail  and  from  local  mills  by  river  boats  to 
ports.  The  American  system  of  round  bales  has  been  much 
discussed  as  to  relative  merit.  The  cotton  from  the  gin  is 
rolled  in  a  lap  as  one  would  roll  a  bandage  or  a  roll  of  tape 
on  a  spool.  The  air  is  pressed  out  and  this  bale  is  said  to 
be  waterproof  and  airproof.  It  is  very  easily  handled 
and  unrolled  at  the  mill,  and  is  in  better  condition  because 
of  proper  wrapping  of  cotton  cloth  which  protects  and  keeps 
it  clean.  It  is  called  the  Bessonette  cylindrical  bale. 

The  Egyptian  cotton  bale  is  a  trifle  longer  than  the 
American  and  weighs  seven  hundred  pounds.  The  Indian 
bales  are  about  four  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  Cotton  is 
shipped  from  the  United  States  to  Liverpool,  Bremen,  Havre, 
and  Genoa,  and  to  other  ports  in  Spain,  Japan,  and  India. 
We  import  cotton  from  Egypt  principally,  but  also  from 


106          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Peru  and  from  India.  The  long  fiber,  imported  Egyptian 
cotton  is  used  for  fine  cotton  goods  requiring  long  staple,  as 
sewing  thread,  underwear,  cotton  hosiery.  The  business  of 
shipping  cotton  is  transacted  by  great  exporting  companies. 
Each  bale  is  so  marked  that  it  can  be  traced  through  each 
step  of  its  journeying. 

Cotton  by-products.  —  Formerly  the  farmers  wasted  most 
of  the  cotton  by-products,  seed  and  stalks  only  being  utilized. 
To-day  the  seed  is  first  delintered  and  this  lint  product  made 
into  wadding.  The  hulls  of  the  seeds  are  then  removed 
and  are  used  for  fertilizer.  The  green  kernels  of  the  seeds 
are  pressed  and  the  oils  used  for  various  purposes,  such  as 
salad  oil,  cooking  fats,  soaps,  candles,  according  to  the  refine- 
ment. The  remains  of  the  pressed  kernel  are  ground  to 
make  the  cottonseed  meal  used  as  food  for  cattle.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  one  ton  of  seed  will  produce  30  pounds 
of  lint,  950  pounds  of  hull,  40  gallons  of  oil,  and  675  pounds  of 
meal. 

Cotton  yarn  manufacture.  —  The  bales,  whether  round  or 
square,  eventually  reach  the  mill.  There  many  processes 
are  necessary  before  the  yarn  is  finally  spun  and  ready  to  be 
used  in  the  weaving  of  cotton  fabrics,  the  making  of  cotton 
thread,  or  for  the  knitting  machines  which  consume  much 
cotton  yarn  in  the  manufacture  of  underwear  and  hosiery. 
The  cotton  on  arrival  at  the  mill  is  first  weighed.  Sometimes 
after  the  bales  are  opened  several  qualities  are  mixed  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  yarn  to  be  made.  The  bale  breaker 
machine  is  used  for  this  purpose.  The  cotton  must  then  be 
cleansed,  and  this  is  done  in  the  picker  machines  by  means 
of  air  currents  which  beat  the  cotton  against  cylinders  until 
the  dirt,  seeds,  and  stones  are  removed.  The  final  picker 
machine  delivers  the  cotton  cleansed  in  a  lap  like  the  cylin- 
drical bale.  The  cotton  is  next  treated  at  carding  machines. 


COTTON 


107 


These  cleanse  still  more,  and  by  means  of  flat  cards  covered 
with  small  wire  teeth  the  fibers  of  the  cotton  are  laid  parallel 
(see  Fig.  44).  The  cotton  roll  or  lap  is  delivered  at  the 
back  of  the  machine  and  leaves  it  at  the  front,  cleansed  and 
carded  —  a  gossamer  web  which  is  the  width  of  the  machine, 
but  is  reduced  to  a  coarse  rope  of  cotton  called  a  sliver  as  it 
passes  into  the  cylindrical  cans  prepared  to  receive  it.  Dur- 
ing this  process  short,  broken,  and  unripe  fibers  are  removed. 


FIG.  44.  — Revolving  flat  card  for  cotton.     Delivery  side. 

The  cans  of  cotton  slivers  are  placed  next  before  the 
drawing  and  doubling  machines  except  when  the  cotton  is 
to  be  combed  as  well  as  carded.  This  process  of  combing 
is  used  when  very  fine  and  strong  yarn  is  required.  A  great 
deal  of  waste  is  made  by  the  use  of  this  machine,  for  only 
the  best  fibers  for  good  yarn  are  wanted.  The  comb  is 
made  up  of  fine  teeth  on  rollers,  which  remove  the  short 


108  SHELTER    AND   CLOTHING 

fibers  and  straighten  out  the  long  ones.  The  cotton  from 
the  carding  machine  is  in  the  form  of  slivers  and  must  be 
prepared  for  the  combing  machine.  This  is  done  in  a  sliver 
lap  machine  which  prepares  the  slivers  into  laps  ten  inches 
wide  which  are  ready  for  the  comb.  The  cotton  is  delivered 
from  the  comb  in  the  form  of  slivers  which  are  delivered  in 
cans  ready  for  the  drawing  and  doubling  frames  or  machines. 
The  purpose  of  these  machines  is  to  pass  a  number  of  slivers 
together  between  rollers  and  draw  them  out  so  as  to  equalize 
the  strength  of  all.  Several  slivers  may  enter  the  back  of 
the  machine  together  and  be  delivered  in  front  as  one  at- 
tenuated stronger  sliver.  We  now  have  a  cleansed  cotton 
with  fibers  lying  as  nearly  parallel  as  possible  and  drawn 
out  in  the  shape  of  a  sliver  or  ropelike  form  of  cotton.  In 
order  that  this  soft  sliver  or  rope  may  not  break,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  put  in  some  twist  as  the  sliver  is  drawn  out  gradually 
until  it  is  a  fine  yarn. 

The  cotton  is  passed  through  bobbin  and  fly  frames  to 
accomplish  this  twisting.  There  are  several  of  these  frames, 
the  slubber,  the  intermediate  roving  frame,  the  roving 
frame,  and  the  jack  roving.  All  cotton  does  not  pass  through 
the  full  set  of  frames,  but  through  those  only  that  will  ac- 
complish the  aim  of  the  manufacturer.  The  cotton  is 
delivered  at  the  back  of  the  machines  on  spools  or  bobbins. 
The  first  frame  in  this  set  has  large  spools  with  a  thick  roving 
and  the  last  before  spinning  a  much  smaller  spool  with  a 
finer  roving.  This  reduction  in  size  is  accomplished  by  the 
bobbin  and  fly  frames,  which  draw  out  the  rovings  as 
they  pass  between  rollers  and  put  in  a  twist  which  makes 
the  attenuating  possible.  The  twisted  roving  on  bobbins 
or  spools  is  a  very  different  looking  cotton  from  the  soft 
cotton  roving  delivered  from  the  drawing  frames.  This 
twisted  roving,  closely  resembling  thick  yarn,  is  ready  now 


110         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

for  the  spinning,  which  draws  it  out,  twists  it,  and  winds 
it  on  spools.  This  drawing  out  of  the  roving  into  yarn 
makes  it  possible  to  obtain  yarn  of  any  degree  of  fine- 
ness. The  spinning  frames  add  the  necessary  twist  to  give 
the  strength  required  (see  Fig.  45).  Modern  spinning  by 
power  machinery  is  quite  different  from  the  spinning  ma- 
chinery of  our  ancestors,  but  the  essential  principle  is  the 
same  in  both  —  to  obtain  a  fine  twisted  yarn  which  has 
been  drawn  out  from  the  raw  material. 

The  history  of  spinning  is  most  interesting.  We  know 
that  the  earliest  and  most  primitive  peoples  imitated  nature 
and  wove  baskets,  blankets,  and  clothing  from  the  natural 
materials  and  the  fibers  which  they  spun  into  yarn  for  weav- 
ing. Spinning  in  the  early  days  was  done  by  hand.  Some 
familiar  old  pictures  show  the  spinner  with  a  distaff  holding 
the  raw  material,  under  one  arm,  and  the  spindle  with  the 
drawn  out  and  twisted  spun  yarn  wound  upon  it,  dangling 
from  the  other  hand.  We  know  that  Egyptian  tombs  have 
revealed  the  fact  that  spinning  was  an  early  art  and  that 
very  fine  yarn  was  spun  by  hand.  "  Who  can  find  a  virtu- 
ous woman?  for  her  price  is  far  above  rubies.  She  seeketh 
wool  and  flax  and  worketh  willingly  with  her  hands.  She 
layeth  her  hands  to  the  spindle  and  her  hands  hold  the 
distaff."  In  various  countries  hand  spinning  was  succeeded 
by  simple  wheel  spinning.  Some  of  us  remember  the  large 
wheel  of  our  grandmothers'  day  for  spinning  wool  and  the 
small  flax  wheel  for  linen  yarn  (see  Figs.  46  and  70). 
These  wheels  were  used  in  Europe  as  early  as  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  large  wheel  was  worked  by  hand  power,  the 
small  by  foot  power.  The  motion  of  the  former  was  inter- 
mittent, for  the  spinner  walked  in  one  direction  to  draw  out 
and  twist  the  yarn  and  in  another  to  wind  it  on  the  bobbin, 
while  the  flax  wheel  spinner  sat  and  with  foot  power  drew 


COTTON 


111 


Courtesy  of  J.  McCutcheon. 
FIG.  46.  —  Flax  wheel. 


out  the  fiber  from  the  spindle  which  twisted  and  also  wound 
it  on  the  bobbin.  Modern  "  ring  "  spinning  is  like  the  flax 
wheel,  continuous  motion,  while  the  "  mule  "  spinning  frame 
is  intermittent,  as  the  rovings  are  drawn  out  and  twisted  by 
one  motion  and  the  machine  reversed  as  the  yarn  is  wound 
on  the  bobbins.  Our  grandmothers  had  to  card  the  wool 
with  hand  cards  and  make  the  wool  rov- 
ings which  were  spun  on  the  great  wheel. 
Between  the  wheels  of  the  sixteenth 
century  and  modern  spinning  there  are 
many  steps  in  the  evolution  of  spinning 
machinery,  and  to-day  we  owe  much  to 
the  inventors  of  those  centuries.  "  Ne- 
cessity is  the  mother  of  invention."  In 
1738  the  fly  shuttle  was  invented  and 
weaving  was  done  very  rapidly,  but  the 
yarn  for  weaving  was  not  available.  A  machine  was  needed 
to  rotate  several  spindles  at  once  instead  of  the  one  spindle 
of  the  flax  or  great  wheel.  Several  inventions  followed. 
James  Hargreaves  of  England  invented  the  spinning  jenny 
in  1764.  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  patented  in  1769  a  machine 
for  spinning  with  rollers,  which  he  installed  in  his  mill  at 
Nottingham,  England.  The  jenny  was  an  intermittent  form 
of  spinning,  while  Arkwright 's  invention  was  a  system  of 
rollers  like  our  modern  ring  spinner.  The  greatest  invention 
in  cotton  spinning  machinery  was  the  mule  jenny  of  Samuel 
Crompton  in  1779.  This  made  possible  the  spinning  of  very 
fine  yarn  and  the  use  of  many  spindles  at  once.  This 
machine  was  a  combination  of  Arkwright's  and  Hargreave's, 
and  as  it  was  a  cross  between  the  two  was  called  a  mule. 
After  Crompton,  Richard  Roberts  of  England  contributed  an 
important  invention,  by  making  the  mule  spinning  machine 
self-acting  by  use  of  a  device  in  the  mechanism  (see  Fig.  71). 


112          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Modern  spinning  machinery  is  therefore  able  to  accom- 
plish the  drawing  out,  twisting,  and  winding  of  yarn,  and  is 
able  to  spin  many  threads  at  once  quickly  and  evenly.  The 
mule  spinning  frame  of  to-day  produces  a  softer  yarn  than 
the  ring  frame.  It  is  therefore  better  adapted  to  the  spin- 
ning of  wool  yarn  and  for  yarn  used  in  knitting  machines  for 
hosiery.  It  is  a  more  complicated  machine  than  the  ring 
and  occupies  more  floor  space.  The  bobbins  containing  the 
rovings  to  be  spun  are  placed  at  the  back  of  the  machine, 
and  the  spindles  on  which  the  threads  are  to  be  wound  are 
in  a  traveling  carriage  which  contains  rows  of  them.  As 
the  machine  recedes  about  five  feet  the  threads,  stretched 
between  roving  bobbins  and  the  spindles  in  the  carriage,  are 
drawn  out  and  twisted.  As  the  traveling  carriage  returns 
to  a  position  near  the  row  of  bobbins  the  twisted  yarn  is 
wound  on  the  spindles. 

The  ring  frame  is  especially  adapted  to  spinning  warp  and 
coarse  yarns.  This  machine  occupies  little  space  and  spins 
continuously  by  means  of  rollers.  The  yarn  is  spun  and 
delivered  on  bobbins  —  ready  for  the  next  process.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  to-day  there  are  over  150,000,000  of 
cotton  spindles  in  operation  in  the  world,  and  about  twenty- 
five  per  cent  are  in  the  United  States.  Cotton  yarns  are 
spun  in  many  sizes.  These  yarns  are  used  principally  for 
warp  and  woof  in  weaving,  for  material  made  on  knitting 
machines,  and  for  thread. 

Cotton  thread  manufacture.  —  Cotton  thread  is  made  by 
twisting  two  or  more  cotton  yarns  together  to  form  a  hard 
twisted  strand.  The  finest  zephyr  yarns  from  the  spinning 
mule  are  used  for  thread  making.  The  very  best  cotton, 
usually  Egyptian  or  Sea  Island,  is  used  in  spinning  this 
yarn,  for  the  long  fiber  produces  a  stronger  thread.  The  first 
step  in  the  process,  after  the  spun  yarn  is  prepared,  is  to 


COTTON  113 

twist  two  yarns  together.  Three  of  these  doubled  yarns 
are  again  twisted  to  make  the  six-cord  spool  thread  which 
is  commonly  used.  The  size  of  the  thread  can  be  controlled 
by  the  machines  in  the  twisting  process.  The  twisted  thread 
at  this  stage  is  wound  on  bobbins  which  are  taken  to  a  reel- 
ing room,  where  machines  wind  the  thread  into  hanks  ready 
for  dyeing  or  bleaching.  The  reeled  hanks  of  unbleached 
thread  are  first  carefully  examined  for  knots  and  defects 
and  then  sent  to  the  bleaching  room,  where  they  are  cleansed 
and  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  calcium  hypochlorite, 
"  chloride  of  lime,"  for  several  hours  until  white.  The  next 
bath  is  one  of  water  with  some  sulphuric  acid  added  to  neu- 
tralize the  lime.  The  thread  is  again  washed  and  boiled 
and  the  process  of  bleaching  repeated.  It  is  thoroughly 
washed  and  rinsed  and  dried  in  the  hydro-extractor.  The 
bleached  thread  is  wound  again  on  bobbins,  is  sometimes 
sized  or  gassed,  and  then  wound  on  spools  for  commercial 
use.  The  thread  to  be  colored  is  dyed  in  the  skein,  then 
wound  and  spooled.  The  finishing,  winding,  fastening, 
labeling  of  spools,  is  all  done  by  machinery  and  is  an  inter- 
esting sight.  A  century  or  two  ago  Dutch  flax,  spun  and 
made  into  thread  abroad,  was  sent  to  this  country  for 
sewing  of  garments.  Think  of  the  progress  that  is  repre- 
sented by  the  six-cord  spool  of  to-day. 

Cotton  cloth  manufacture.  —  Cloth  is  made  by  interlacing 
the  warp  or  lengthwise  threads  of  the  loom  with  a  crosswise 
or  woof  thread  which  binds  the  edges,  forming  two  selvages. 
Weaves  may  vary  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  warp 
and  woof  threads  interlace,  and  even  on  the  hand  loom  this 
variation  can  be  controlled.  Cloth  is  made  to-day  prin- 
cipally by  power  machinery  on  the  power  loom.  The  first 
power  loom  was  invented  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cartwright  of 
England  in  1774.  Weaving  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of 


114          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

arts  and  originated  with  the  primitive  needs  of  shelter  and 
clothing.  Biblical  and  classical  history  give  many  proofs 
of  the  early  use  of  the  art.  Rushes  and  other  short  materials 
were  probably  used  first  and  suggested  the  spinning  of  con- 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  National  Museum. 
FIG.  47.  —  Primitive  weaving. 

tinuous  woof  threads  so  that  selvages  might  be  formed, 
which  was  impossible  with  short  rushes  and  other  natural 
fibers.  The  early  hand  looms  of  many  countries  are  most 
interesting  and  may  be  studied  in  any  museum.  The 
Indian  looms  are  especially  worthy  of  study  to  all  Ameri- 
cans (see  Fig.  47). 

Early  looms  of  all  countries  have  the  same  characteristics. 
Some  device  for  holding  the  warp  or  lengthwise  threads  in 


COTTON 


115 


place  —  called  the  frame  of  the  loom  ;  some  means  of  throw- 
ing the  woof  thread  after  separating  or  raising  certain  warp 
threads  to  make  plain  or  pattern  weave ;  and  some  method 
of  battening,  or  pushing  firmly  together  the  threads  thrown 
across.  The  motion  of  dividing  the  warp  threads  for  plain 
or  pattern  weaving  is  called  shedding,  that  of  throwing  the 


ourtesy  of  Draper  Co. 


FIG.  48.  —  "In  days  gone  by." 


woof  across  is  picking,  and  the  third  step,  of  pushing  the  woof 
threads  together,  is  the  battening  of  the  cloth.  The  primi- 
tive looms  all  accomplish  these  steps  in  a  simple  way  by 
hand,  and  the  power  looms  do  so  to-day  much  more  rapidly 
by  means  of  intricate  machinery.  A  study  of  the  Colonial 
type  of  loom  will  give  a  good  idea  of  primitive  methods  and 
help  one  to  understand  some  of  the  intricacies  of  the  modern 
loom  (see  Fig.  48).  We  find  a  simple  framework  of  wood, 
holding  two  rollers,  one  at  the  back  on  which  the  warp  is 


116  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

rolled  and  the  one  at  the  front  for  holding  the  roll  of  finished 
cloth  near  the  weaver's  seat.  The  warp  threads,  varying  in 
number  according  to  the  width  and  fineness  of  the  cloth, 
pass  in  parallel  order  from  the  warp  beam  at  the  back 
towards  the  weaver's  seat,  passing  through  a  device  called 
the  heddles,  then  through  the  reed  which  is  in  the  batten,  and 
finally  they  are  wound  on  the  cloth  roller.  The  weaver  sits 
in  front  of  the  loom  and  weaves  with  a  shuttle  containing  a 
bobbin  on  which  the  woof  yarn  is  wound.  This  yarn  un- 
winds as  the  weaver  carries  the  shuttle  back  and  forth. 
The  weaving  is  done  on  the  side  of  the  batten  towards  the 
weaver.  The  weaver  uses  her  feet  also,  and  the  treadles 
which  she  works  are  attached  to  the  heddles  above.  If 
there  are  two  heddles,  as  in  plain  weaving,  the  odd  threads 
of  the  warp,  1,  3,  5,  7,  etc.,  pass  through  the  eyes  of  one 
heddle  and  the  even  threads,  2,  4,  6,  8,  etc.,  through  the 
second  heddle  (see  Fig.  49).  If  one  treadle  is  attached  to 
the  heddle  with  odd  threads,  a  step  on  it  will  lower  all  alter- 
nate threads  so  that  a  division,  or  shed,  is  made  through 
which  the  weaver  can  throw  the  thread.  The  other  treadle 
attached  to  the  even  threads  would  in  turn  perform  its 
duty.  By  means  of  this  device  for  harnessing  the  threads 
in  heddles  and  attaching  heddles  to  treadles  it  is  possible  to 
make  many  variations  of  pattern.  This  device  of  harness- 
ing accomplishes  the  motion  of  shedding,  or  dividing  the 
warp  threads,  for  the  picking  or  passing  of  the  woof. 

To-day,  shedding,  picking,  and  battening  can  all  be  done 
by  machinery  on  the  power  loom.  Since  the  first  power 
loom  of  Dr.  Cartwright,  there  have  been  many  improvements ; 
and  the  complicated  Jacquard  looms  of  to-day  make  possible 
many  variations  of  pattern  and  the  accomplishment  of  many 
yards  of  cloth  in  an  hour.  Primitive  looms  contained  but 
short  lengths  of  warp  as  for  a  rug  or  blanket,  but  in  the  evo- 


COTTON 


117 


lution  of  the  art  the  rollers  were  used  as  in  the  Colonial  type 
to  hold  longer  lengths  of  warp  and  so  produce  more  yards  of 
cloth.  The  power  loom  of  to-day  with  its  large  warp  beam 
can  hold  rolls  of  several  hundred  yards  of  warp  (see  Figs. 
50,  51).  Yarn  which  comes  from  the  spinner's  mule  or  ring 
frame  is  used  for  both  warp  and  woof.  If  for  the  woof,  it 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 
FIG.  49.  —Drawing  in  of  threads  in  preparation  for  weaving. 

must  be  wound  on  the  spools  which  fit  in  the  shuttles. 
There  are  simple  machines  for  accomplishing  this.  If  for 
warp  in  the  loom,  the  bobbins  of  yarn  must  be  prepared  for 
the  warp^  beam.  This  process  is  called  warping  and  was 
done  by  our  grandmothers  on  warping  bars  in  a  simple  way 
and  by  the  modern  machinery  more  easily  and  quickly 
(see  Fig.  57).  The  yarn  for  warp  is  spooled  on  a  machine 


118          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

called  a  spooler,  and  then  many  spools  are  placed  on  a  rack 
called  a  skarn  or  creel.  The  ends  of  yarn  from  the  spools 
are  gathered  together  according  to  the  width  of  cloth  re- 
quired —  if  five  hundred  wide,  then  from  five  hundred  spools 
—  and  are  passed  through  a  device  which  arranges  the 
threads  in  proper  order  and  from  which  they  are  wound  on  a 
cylinder  called  a  beam.  This  beam  fits  in  the  back  of  the 
loom.  Sometimes  the  warp  threads  pass  through  a  bath  of 
sizing  of  starch  mixture.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing the  strength  of  the  warp  and  making  it  smoother.  Some- 
times the  object  is  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  cloth.  The 
warp  is  then  passed  from  the  beam  at  the  back  of  loom 
through  the  heddles.  This  process  of  harnessing  is  still 
done  by  hand  (see  Fig.  49).  The  movements  of  the 
modern  power  loom  are  fascinating  as  the  fly  shuttle  moves 
back  and  forth  in  the  picking  and  the  batten  automatically 
pushes  forward  the  thrown  woof.  The  division  of  the 
threads  for  the  shedding  is  most  interesting. 

In  the  Jacquard  harness  for  shedding  is  found  a  device 
which  makes  possible  many  variations  of  pattern.  One 
finds  placed  high  above  the  loom  a  series  of  cards.  Each 
card  represents  one  throw  of  the  woof.  The  number  in  the 
series  of  cards  making  the  pattern  varies  according  to  design. 
The  pattern  is  repeated  in  the  cloth  by  the  cards  revolving 
over  again.  Each  warp  thread  running  parallel  below  on 
the  loom  has  attached  to  it  a  thread  at  right  angles  (see 
Fig.  58).  These  upward  threads  are  attached  to  a  set  of 
iron  rods  above  the  loom  in  a  box  near  the  card  series. 
The  cards  are  perforated  with  holes  and  revolve  against  the 
ends  of  the  iron  rods.  A  hole  in  a  card  permits  an  iron 
rod  to  pass  through  it.  A  blank  hits  the  end  of  the  rod, 
knocks  it  out  of  place,  and  consequently  lowers  the  warp 
thread  attached  at  right  angles  below.  The  perforations 


COTTON 


119 


in  each  card  are  different  and  are  worked  out  by  the  de- 
signers, who  study  the  necessary  shedding,  or  raising  and 
lowering  of  warp,  in  order  to  accomplish  the  varying 
designs  (see  Fig.  59) .  This  and  the  perforating  of  the  cards 
requires  close  application.  The  Jacquard  harness  is  used 


Courtesy  of  Draper  Co. 
FIG.  50.  —  Northrup  loom  for  weaving  plain  material. 

principally  in  the  manufacture  of  elaborate  silks  and  linen 
damasks  and  was  invented  by  Joseph  M.  Jacquard  about 
1792.  There  are  many  variations  of  weave  besides  plain 
weaving,  which  is  the  simple  alternation  of  warp  and  woof, 
and  the  Jacquard  device  for  the  elaborate  pattern  or  fig- 
ure weaving.  Pattern  can  be  produced  in  plain  weaving 


120          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

by  means  of  color,  as  in  stripes,  checks,  or  plaids  when  the 
color  of  warp  or  woof  thread  is  changed. 

Plain  twill  and  fancy  twill  weaving  are  produced  by  har- 
nessing the  warp  so  that  the  woof  threads  pass  over  and 
under  the  warp  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  diagonal  ridges 
across  the  cloth.  This  necessitates  a  variation  on  each  row 
of  over  and  under  so  as  to  make  the  diagonal  lines.  Satin 
weave,  as  in  sateen  or  satin,  is  produced  by  the  filling  or  woof 
passing  over  more  threads  than  under,  thus  making  a  smooth 
surface  of  the  woof.  This  is  called  a  filling  face  satin.  It  is 
very  easy  in  this  weave  to  use  a  cotton  warp  and  a  silk  filling 
and  so  produce  a  satin  in  which  the  cotton  does  not  show 
and  which  is  sometimes  represented  as  all  silk.  A  warp  face 
satin  is  made  by  bringing  most  of  the  warp  to  the  face  of  the 
cloth.  Cotton  and  wool  are  sometimes  so  combined  as  all 
wool,  but  this  weave  is  used  more  largely  in  silk  or  damask 
rather  than  in  wool.  There  are  other  variations  in  weave 
which  are  not  quite  as  common  as  the  above,  as  lappet 
weave,  which  is  a  kind  of  embroidery.  This  is  produced  by 
needles  on  a  small  sliding  machine  which  embroiders  spots 
or  other  simple  figures  as  dots  in  swiss  or  gauze.  Turkish 
towels,  velveteen,  plush,  and  carpet  are  produced  by  the  pile 
weave. 

The  finishing  of  cotton  materials.  —  After  the  cloth  is 
woven  it  is  necessary  to  finish  it  before  it  is  ready  for  com- 
mercial use,  and  various  finishes  are  used  to  make  the  cloth 
salable.  Before  finishing,  the  cloth  is  inspected  for  defects 
and  is  then  bleached  if  it  is  to  be  pure  white.  Starching  is 
often  used  in  finishing.  This  process  weights  the  cloth  and 
gives  firmness  for  a  time,  but  soon  wears  away  in  washing. 
The  cloth  is  then  pressed  or  calendered  between  rollers  to 
produce  a  smooth,  glazed  surface.  It  is  possible  to  vary 
this  pressing  so  as  to  make  various  watered  and  moire  effects 


COTTON  121 

like  silk,  which  soon  wear  away.  Cotton  is  also  finished  to 
look  like  silk  by  a  process  called  mercerization,  which  is'  pro- 
duced by  chemical  action.  The  yarn  is  dipped  in  a  bath  of 
strong  caustic  soda  under  tension  and  finally  washed  in 
water  and  dilute  acid.  This  gives  a  lustrous  appearance, 
and  the  yarn  feels  silky.  It  takes  dye  very  readily  after 
mercerization  and  is  heavier  and  stronger.  The  outer  layer 
of  the  fiber  of  cotton  is  affected  and  swells,  thus  reflecting 
more  light  and  appearing  lustrous.  A  good  quality  of  long 
staple  cotton  is  used  for  this  purpose.  The  cost  of  producing 
mercerized  yarn  is  more  than  twice  that  of  ordinary  cotton 
yarn.  The  stripes  and  figures  in  cotton  materials  which 
appear  lustrous  are  made  of  mercerized  yarn.  It  is  some- 
times used  in  the  adulteration  of  silk. 

Cotton  can  be  finished  also  to  resemble  linen.  The  yarn 
is  treated  to  sizing,  is  twisted  more,  and  in  finishing  is  beaten 
and  pressed  so  the  yarn  stands  out  as  in  linen.  Lisle  thread, 
of  which  gloves  and  hosiery  are  made,  is  often  supposed  to 
be  linen.  This  thread  is  cotton  twisted  a  great  deal  so  that 
the  yarn  is  hard  and  strong.  Cotton  can  be  made  to  have 
also  the  appearance  of  wool.  The  Peruvian  cotton  of  which 
some  hosiery  is  made  closely  resembles  wool.  Chenille  and 
velveteen  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  wool,  but  are  cotton 
woven  in  a  pile  and  cut  so  as  to  show  the  numerous  fuzzy 
ends  of  the  yarn.  Chenille  curtains  are  woven  of  strips  of 
this  tufted  pile  cotton.  Printed  fabrics  like  calico  and 
"  silkaline  "  are  printed  by  passing  the  plain  cloth  between 
cylinders  on  which  the  design  of  the  pattern  desired  has  been 
cut  out.  These  cylinders  take  up  colors  from  troughs  in 
which  they  revolve  and  the  impression  is  made  on  the  cloth. 
The  printed  cloth  is  then  finished  so  as  to  fix  the  dye  and  is 
pressed  and  ready  for  market. 


122 


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DESCRIPTION 

heavy-weight  fabric.  Excellent  wearing 
qualities.  Made  in  many  weights. 
Heavy  used  for  sails,  tents,  awnings. 
Light  weights  for  ladies'  skirts  and 
dresses,  men's  trousers  ;  white  or  colored, 
irst  made  in  Damascus.  A  twill  and 
sateen  weave,  of  geometrical  or  floral  de- 
signs. Imitates  linen  damask.  Used 
for  table  linen  and  towels.  First  made 
in  silk. 

sed  in  manufacture  of  kimonas,  wrappers, 
etc.  Figures  in  color  printed  on  plain 
surface.  Slight  nap. 
sed  for  dresses  and  aprons,  shirtings,  etc. 
Most  universal  fabric.  Plain  weave. 
Many  combinations  of  warp  and  woof  to 
form  stripes  and  plaids.  Originally  In- 
dian zephyr  ginghams  very  fine  quality. 
Used  for  dresses.  Madras  gingham  of 
fine  quality  for  shirtings.  Various 
weaves  are  used  in  finer  gingham, 
sed  for  children's  dresses,  outing  skirts. 
Stands  much  wear  and  washing.  Plain 
colors,  figures,  and  stripes.  Heavy,  firm 
cotton  cloth, 
auzy  dress  fabric,  made  also  of  all  silk, 
silk  and  wool,  silk  and  cotton,  and  all 
cotton.  Plain,  loose  weave  with  stripes 
of  satin  weave.  Black,  white,  or  colors. 

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128          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Other  uses  of  cotton  yarns.  —  The  uses  of  cotton  yarns 
are  innumerable.  The  thread  industry  is  one  great  specialty 
in  itself.  The  knitting  industry  converts  large  quantities 
of  cotton  yarn  into  hosiery  and  underwear.  Tape,  belting, 
braids,  binding,  shoe  and  corset  laces,  and  other  narrow 
fabrics  consume  quantities.  Lace  making  both  by  hand  and 
machine  requires  both  yarn  and  thread. 

Cotton  industry  in  the  United  States.  —  The  first  cotton 
mill  in  the  United  States  was  erected  in  1788.  As  early  as 
1831  there  were  800  factories  in  the  New  England  States 
producing  cotton  fabrics,  and  62,000  operatives  engaged  in 
the  industry  with  a  consumption  of  75  million  of  pounds. 
Since  then  the  advance  has  been  rapid,  and  the  development 
of  the  cotton  industry  in  the  Southern  States  has  astonished 
the  business  world.  At  the  present  time  about  2000  mil- 
lion pounds  are  consumed  annually.  The  New  England 
States,  however,  remain  the  center  of  the  American  cotton 
industry,  Massachusetts  leading,  then  Rhode  Island,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Connecticut.  The  presence  of  water  power 
in  New  England  explains  its  early  success.  This  has  been 
supplemented  by  steam  with  rapid  development.  In  the 
South,  Georgia,  Alabama,  North  and  South  Carolina  have 
shown  greatest  growth  in  this  industry.  The  center  of  the 
cotton  spinning  industry  in  the  South  is  at  Charlotte,  N.C. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  reasons  why  women  should  make  a  study  of  textiles. 

2.  In  what  way  did  Eli  Whitney's  gin  revolutionize  the  cotton 
industry  ?     Describe  modern  cotton  ginning. 

3.  Compare  the  American  system  of  baling  with  that  of  other 
countries. 

4.  What  products  are  made  from  the  cotton  seed  ? 

5.  Describe  the  two  principal  systems  of  spinning  machinery. 

6.  How  is  cotton  thread  manufactured  ? 


130          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

7.  Name  and  describe  various  methods  of  producing  patterns 
in  cloth  by  weaving. 

8.  Describe  the  working  of  the  colonial  type  of  loom. 

9.  Describe  four  ways  in  which  cotton  is  finished  to  resemble 
other  materials. 

10.  Get  samples  of    common    cotton   materials.     Classify  and 
mount  in  convenient  form  for  reference.     This  can  be  an  individual 
or  class  problem.     Names,  widths,  prices  of  samples  obtained  should 
be  given. 

11.  Describe  the  growth  of  cotton  manufacture  in  the  United 
States.     Give  causes. 


CHAPTER   IX 
FLAX 

NEXT  to  cotton  the  most  important  vegetable  material 
for  spinning  is  flax  or  linen.  It  is  a  bast  fiber  which  is  ob- 
tained near  the  outer  surface  of  the  plant  stem.1  The  inner 
tissues  are  woody  and  of  no  value. 

Where  grown.  —  Flax  has  been  cultivated  for  at  least 
five  thousand  years  in  Egypt  and  Assyria.  It  was  known  to 
have  been  used  by  the  Swiss  Lake  Dwellers,  and  is  found 
wild  in  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  parts  of  Asia.  We  are 
told  in  Genesis,  Chapter  42,  that  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph 
in  vestures  of  fine  linen.  Russia  to-day  produces  about  half 
of  the  world's  supply,  but  'it  is  largely  of  inferior  grade. 
Ireland  and  Belgium  produce  the  best  quality  of  fiber.  It  is 
grown  also  in  Holland,  France,  Egypt,  and  Italy,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  United  States. 

Varieties  of  flax.  —  The  flax  plant  is  classified  botanically 
as  belonging  to  the  order  Linacese.  It  has  numerous  varie- 
ties, of  which  those  belonging  to  the  species  Linum  usitatis- 
simum  are  the  most  common.  It  adapts  itself  to  varying 
climatic  and  other  conditions,  and  is  an  annual,  with  erect 
stalk,  which  reaches  the  height  of  20  to  40  inches.  It  has 
narrow  lance-shaped  leaves  which  are  borne  on  stems  that 
branch  at  the  top,  bearing  a  tiny  blue  flower.  The  seed  pod 
is  five-celled,  each  cell  containing  two  seeds.  They  are 

1  A  bast  fiber,  such  as  ramie  or  flax,  is  the  fiber  from  the  inner  bark  of 
exogenous  plants.  It  must  be  cleaned  and  free  from  the  gum  before  it  can 
be  used. 

131 


132  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

smooth,  glossy,  and  greenish  brown  in  color  and  of  great  value 
commercially  as  the  source  of  linseed  oil  and  linseed  (flaxseed) 
meal.  A  microscopical  examination  of  the  fiber  shows  tit  to 
be  a  long,  cylindrical  tube  of  uniform  thickness.  It  varies 
in  color  from  pale  yellow  to  gray  and  greenish  tints.  It 
averages  in  length  about  twenty  inches,  but  is  often  thirty 
or  forty  inches.  It  is  almost  purely  cellulose  and  shows 
microscopically  the  bast  fibers  running  longitudinally. 

Flax  culture.  —  The  cultivation  of  flax  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  industries.  In  general,  flax  prospers  best  when 
grown  on  a  deep,  well-cultivated,  but  not  too  heavy  soil. 
When  grown  for  fiber,  it  is  planted  thickly  so  as  to  produce 
tall,  slender  stems  free  from  branches.  When  grown  for  seed, 
it  is  planted  more  scantily  to  give  opportunity  for  branching. 
When  cultivated  for  fiber,  the  crop  should  be  pulled  before 
the  seeds  are  quite  ripe  and  while  the  stalks  are  brownish 
yellow.  Flax  exhausts  the  soil  very  quickly,  the  average  oc- 
cupancy being  eight  years  in  the  Courtrai  region  in  Belgium. 
Flax  culture  in  America  is  expensive  because  of  the  hand 
labor  required.  Flax  for  fiber  is  pulled  by  the  root  and  laid 
on  the  ground  with  root  ends  together  and  stalks  parallel. 
The  pulling  is  done  in  clear  weather  and  the  stalks  are 
bound  in  bundles  or  stacked  in  stocks.  The  next  process 
is  rippling,  or  the  removal  of  the  seed  from  the  capsules. 
This  is  usually  also  a  field  process  and  must  be  done  so  as 
not  to  injure  the  fiber.  The  simple  machine  for  rippling  is  a 
kind  of  comb  of  iron  teeth  set  in  a  wooden  frame.  This  is 
placed  on  a  large  sheet  so  as  to  collect  the  seeds  as  they  fall. 
After  rippling  the  fiber  is  arranged  in  bundles  for  the  retting. 
This  is  a  most  important  process  and  is  really  the  rotting 
away  of  the  outer  woody  surface  of  the  flax  stem  by  means 
of  fermentation.  Flax  is  retted  by  dew  and  by  water. 
When  dew  retted  it  is  spread  on  the  grass  and  subjected  to 


FLAX  133 

dew,  sunshine,  air,  and  rain.  It  is  a  slow  process  but  neces- 
sary in  order  to  break  up  the  outer  woody  surface  of  the 
stem  and  free  the  valuable  fiber.  When  retted  by  water, 
the  bundles  of  flax  are  laid  closely  together  in  the  ponds. 
Sometimes  the  bundles  are  placed  in  open  slatted  crates 
which  are  lowered  in  the  water  and  weighted.  The  fermen- 
tation soon  takes  place  and  in  about  two  weeks  the  flax  is 
ready  to  be  removed.  A  soft  water  free  from  iron  is  essen- 
tial. If  left  too  long  in  the  water,  the  flax  is  weakened.  If 
not  long  enough,  some  of  the  gummy  substances  are  left, 
which  interfere  with  the  processes  of  manufacture.  The 
retted  flax  is  then  spread  to  dry  in  the  fields  and  in  about 
two  weeks  it  is  ready  for  the  breaking.  This  process  is  some- 
times accomplished  by  hand  with  simple  implements  which 
break  away  the  outer  woody  part  of  the  stem,  partly  cleans- 
ing the  fiber.  Small  steam  or  water  power  scutching  mills 
generally  perform  this  operation.  The  fluted  rollers  for 
breaking  and  scutching  are  arranged  to  work  backwards 
and  forwards,  and  as  the  flax  passes  between,  the  outer  sur- 
face breaks  away.  The  flax  is  then  ready  to  be  manufactured 
into  yarn. 

Flax  by-products.  —  The  flaxseed,  or  linseed  as  it  is  called, 
is  very  valuable  commercially.  The  brown,  elongated  seed 
is  crushed  for  the  oils.  The  cake  or  meal  left  is  a  valuable 
food  for  cattle.  Linseed  oil  is  a  most  valuable  drying  oil. 
When  pressed  cold,  it  is  often  used  for  food,  especially  in 
Russia  and  Poland.  When  pressed  hot,  the  color  is  brown. 
This  oil  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  oil  paints  and  var- 
nishes. It  is  also  used  in  making  linoleum  and  is  one  of 
the  principal  ingredients  in  lithographing  inks. 

Linen  yarn  manufacture.  —  Linen  yarn  manufacture  is 
one  of  the  oldest  industries  of  the  world,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  most  extensive  and  widely  disseminated.  Until  com- 


134 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


paratively  recent  times  flax  was  spun  with  the  spindle,  the 
distaff  holding  the  yarn.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  flax 
wheel  succeeded  and  continued  in  use  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  inventions  of  Arkwright,  Har- 
greave,  and  Crompton  were  especially  for  cotton  yarn, 
and  the  manufacture  of  linen  yarn  suffered  from  the  aggres- 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  MUls,  Belfast. 
FIG.  52. — Roughing  flax. 

siveness  of  the  new  industry.  A  machine  was  needed  to  spin 
flax  yarn  as  quickly  as  cotton,  and  rewards  were  offered  from 
time  to  time  in  the  hope  that  some  inventor  would  give  his 
attention  to  this  need.  Linen  is  not  as  universally  used  as 
in  our  grandmother's  times,  for  cotton  has  become  cheaper 
through  use  of  machinery.  Our  grandmothers  grew,  pre- 
pared, spun,  and  wove  the  flax  for  their  sheets,  clothing, 


FLAX 


135 


and  household  uses.  The  small  cups  on  the  old  spinning 
wheels  held  water  for  wet  spinning.  Dry  spinning  was  not 
considered  as  fine. 

In  modern  factory  spinning  the  scutched  bundles  of  flax, 
measuring  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  length,  are  de- 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  53.  —  Machine  hackling  or  preparation  of  the  flax  for  the  spread  boards. 

livered  at  the  flax  mill.  The  first  process  is  grading  and 
labeling  ready  for  use.  The  flax  is  then  prepared  for  spin- 
ning by  means  of  the  hackle.  This  process,  called  roughing, 
when  done  by  hand  is  accomplished  on  a  board  containing 
teeth  through  which  the  hackler  draws  the  flax,  cleaning 
and  combing  it  (see  Fig.  52).  The  long  fiber  is  called  the 
line  and  the  short  combed  out  fibers  the  tow.  When  hackled 
by  machinery  the  first  step  is  called  roughing.  The  bundles 


136 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


of  flax  are  fastened  in  a  holder  of  two  iron  plates.  By  a 
motion  of  these  plates  up  and  down  the  line  of  flax  is  sub- 
jected to  a  combing  process  from  the  hackle  teeth  of  the 
machine  (see  Fig.  53).  The  tow  from  the  hackle  is  put 
in  a  carding  machine  and  is  used  for  coarser  purposes.  The 
line  is  then  sorted  according  to  quality  and  is  ready  for  the 


Courtesy  of  Yorl  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  54.  —  Spreading  flax  in  preparation  for  spinning. 

spreading.  The  spread  boards  deliver  the  flax,  on  a  travel- 
ing sheet  where  it  is  laid  by  hand  in  small  bundles,  to  the 
"  gill,"  a  set  of  teeth  in  the  machine  which  again  clean  it 
and  form  it  into  a  sliver  similar  to  the  cotton  sliver  for 
spinning.  This  is  the  first  time  the  flax  is  in  a  continuous 
length  and  ready  to  be  made  into  yarn.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  overlap  the  bundles  on  the  spread  board  so  that 
the  line  of  flax  will  be  continuous  (see  Fig.  54). 


FLAX 


137 


The  slivers  of  flax  are  delivered  from  the  spread  boards 
in  cans  and  subjected  to  processes  similar  to  those  in  cotton 
manufacture  which  reduce  the  size  of  the  sliver.  The  roving 
frames  then  put  in  the  twist  as  in  cotton  yarn  manufacture, 
and  the  flax  is  ready  for  spinning.  The  flax  spinning  ma- 
chinery is  similar  in  principle  to  the  ring  spinning  frame 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  55.  —  Flax  spinning. 

used  for  cotton  (see  Fig.  55).  The  rovings  are  drawn 
out,  twisted,  and  wound.  The  rovings  pass  between  rollers 
and  in  wet  spinning  through  a  trough  of  warm  water  which 
dissolves  some  of  the  gummy  substance  of  the  fiber  and 
makes  possible  a  finer,  smoother,  firmer  yarn. 

Linen  cloth  manufacture.  —  Linen  was  woven  by  hand  for 
many  years  after  power  loom  weaving  was  used  for  the 


138 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


manufacture  of  other  textile  fibers.  This  was  due  to  the 
hardness  and  inelasticity  of  the  linen  yarn.  Even  to-day 
much  of  the  fine  linen  is  woven  by  hand.  The  factories  of 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  may  be  credited  with  perfecting  the 
use  of  the  power  looms  for  linen  weaving  (see  Fig.  56). 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  58. — Weaving. 

/ 

The  processes  of  preparation  of  the  warp  (see  Fig.  57),  the 
reeling,  spooling,  dressing,  beaming,  and  drawing  in  or  har- 
nessing are  the  same  in  essential  principles  as  the  processes 
described  for  cotton  weaving  in  the  last  chapter.  The 
dressing  of  the  warp  in  preparation  for  beaming  is  important 
in  linen  manufacture.  A  paste  of  flour  or  farina  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  Linen  fabrics  as  produced  on  the  power 
looms  of  to-day  with  the  Jacquard  harness  are  wonderful 


FLAX 


139 


in  texture,  design,  and  quality  (see  Fig.  58).  The  beauty  of 
the  table  damasks  is  not  rivaled  even  by  silk.  The  French 
designs  are  the  most  beautiful,  the  Scotch  and  Irish  rank 
next  (see  Fig.  59,  for  the  way  in  which  the  patterns  are 
prepared) . 

The    finishing    of   linen    materials.  —  Linen   is   bleached 
sometimes  in  the  yarn  or  in  the  thread,  but  often  in  the 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  57.  — Warping  in  preparation  for  weaving.    The  creel  holds  the  spools. 

cloth.  It  is  done  to-day  principally  by  chemical  process, 
but  in  our  grandmother's  time-  the  process  was  a  slow  one, 
taking  weeks  and  months.  It  was  accomplished  by  wetting 
the  cloth  with  sour  milk  and  spreading  it  on  the  grass  to 
bleach.  In  the  process  of  bleaching,  from  20  to  25  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  linen  is  lost.  ,  Ireland  is  celebrated  for 


_         _0  Courtesy  of  Grampian  &  Knowles. 

FIG.  58.  — Jacquard  weaving.    Beautiful  pattern  damasks  are  woven  on 

this  kind  of  loom. 

140 


Courtesy  of  W.  J.  WMthall  &  Co. 

FIG.  59.  —  Cutting  patterns.    The  cards  for  the  Jacquard  loom,  which  regu- 
late the  pattern,  are  cut  on  this  machine  from  the  designer's  drawing. 

141 


142 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


the  purity  of  its  linen.  Chemicals  are  sometimes  used  in 
the  early  stages,  and  crofting  or  grass  bleaching  perfects  the 
process  (see  Fig.  60).  One  can  ride  for  miles  in  Ireland 
and  see  the  linen  spread  in  endless  lengths  on  the  grass. 
German  unbleached  linens  are  less  expensive  to  buy  because 
of  less  loss  in  manufacture  through  bleaching. 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  60. — Bleaching  green. 

After  the  bleaching,  linen  cloth  is  finished  for  commerce. 
It  is  passed  through  rub  boards  which  wash  it  (see  Fig.  61). 
Then  drying,  beetling  (see  Fig.  62),  calendering,  and  pressing 
complete  the  finish.  The  beetling  of  the  linen  is  a  beating 
process  which  makes  the  fiber  stand  out.  The  calendering 
adds  glaze  and  by  pressing  between  rollers  gives  a  smooth 
surface.  Cotton  is  sometimes  beetled  to  give  the  effect  of 
linen,  but  the  glaze  is  then  easily  removed  by  washing. 
Linen  fabrics,  if  at  all  good,  range  in  price  from  $.60  to  $4  per 
yard. 

Linen  materials  vary  in  quality  and  weight  and  certain 
countries  are  noted  for  their  specialization  in  this  manu- 
facture. Certain  parts  of  Scotland  are  noted  for  the  manu- 


FLAX 


143 


facture  of  heavy  linen,  as  sail  cloth,  canvas,  sacking.  Fine 
linen  manufacture  is  centered  in  Belfast  and  the  north  of 
Ireland.  Leeds  and  Barnsley  are  the  centers  of  the  linen 
trade  in  England.  Damasks  are  produced  principally  in 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mills,  Belfast. 
FIG.  61.  — Washing  of  linen  after  weaving. 

Belfast  and  Perth,  and  dyed  linen  fabrics  are  made  especially 
in  Germany. 

Other  uses  of  linen  yarn.  —  Beside  the  wide  variety  of 
fabrics,  linen  yarn  is  manufactured  into  various  kinds  of 
fine  and  heavy  thread.  The  trade  in  linen  thread  is  very 
large,  as  it  is  used  in  the  machine  manufacture  of  boots, 
shoes,  leather  goods,  and  saddlery.  The  thread  industry  is 
centered  largely  near  Belfast  in  Ireland  and  in  Paterson, 
N.J.  Yarn  and  thread  are  also  manufactured  into  very 


144 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


fine  lace.     Cord,  twine,   and  ropes  are  twisted  from  flax 
yarn. 

The  linen  industry  in  the  United  States.  —  Very  little  flax 
is  grown  in  the  United  States  for  fiber,  though  considerable 
quantities  are  raised  for  seed.  In  Minnesota  and  Kansas 
some  experiments  have  been  tried.  The  growth  of  weeds  is 


Courtesy  of  York  St.  Mitts,  Belfast, 
FIG.  62.  —  Beetling,  a  finishing  process  of  linen. 

one  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  success  of  flax  culture  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  impossible  to  get  the  cheap  labor  for 
weeding  that  is  possible  in  foreign  countries.  Machines  are 
needed  for  pulling  and  other  processes  in  the  culture.  The 
Minnesota  flax  is  the  best  grown,  but  the  materials  manu- 
factured from  it  are  very  inferior  to  the  foreign-grown  varie- 
ties. Flax  costs  twelve  to  thirty  cents  per  pound. 


FLAX 


145 


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FE  RIALS 

DESCRIPTION 

ine  linen,  waist  and  dress  linens, 
lar  to  linen  lawn, 
sed  for  butchers'  aprons,  dress  skir 
heavy,  coarse  weave, 
leer  linen  used  for  dress  goods  and 
kerchiefs. 

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Lrd's-eye  pattern.  Used  for  to\ 
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eculiar  weave  showing  much  surf 
woof  thread.  Absorbs  very  n 
Used  for  toweling.  Sometimes 
bined  with  cotton.  Union  gooc 
cheaper, 
ine  plain  weave.  Used  for  handke 
and  dresses, 
oarse  linen,  used  principally  for  sha 
fine,  sheer  linen.  Used  for  dress  goo 
handkerchiefs  . 
ride  linen.  Used  for  bed  sheets  anc 
and  suit  materials 
pholstery  materials.  Woven  and 
pile  like  velvet. 

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146  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

Other  vegetable  fibers.  —  There  are  many  other  useful 
vegetable  fibers  of  commerce  besides  cotton  and  flax.  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  issues  a  bulletin 


Courtesy  ofU.  S  Dfpt  of  Agriculture. 

FIG.  63.  —  Flax  and  other  vegetable  fibers  used  for  commercial  purposes. 
[A,  Flax;  B,  C,  Hemp;  Z>,  Jute ;  E,  F,  G,  H,  Manila,  Sisal,  and  other  hard  fibers.] 

in  which  over  one  thousand  are  mentioned.  The  principal 
ones  are  Hemp,  Jute,  and  Ramie.  Ramie,  called  also  China 
grass,  is  a  shrub  growing  from  five  to  eight  feet  when  culti- 
vated. It  is  three  times  as  strong  as  Russian  hemp,  and  its 


FLAX  147 

filaments  may  be  separated  to  be  almost  as  fine  as  silk.  It 
is  a  bast  fiber  and  is  only  half  as  heavy  as  linen.  It  grows 
in  southwestern  Asia.  China  and  Japan  cultivate  much  of 
it.  It  is  growing  in  importance  commercially,  for  it  can  be 
used  to  resemble  silk  in  mixing  fibers  and  is  often  used  in 
adulterating  wools.  It  can  be  woven  into  fine,  beautiful 
fabrics,  and  will  doubtless  be  used  much  when  cheaper 
methods  of  cleaning  have  been  found.  It  is  used  also  for 
fine  paper,  and  the  pulp  is  especially  valuable  for  bank  note 
paper.  Coir  and  Pina  (see  Fig.  63)  are  also  used  extensively. 
Hemp  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  cord  and 
rope.  Jute  is  not  quite  as  strong  and  is  used  for  sacks, 
bagging,  and  the  finer  varieties  for  mixing  with  silk,  cotton, 
flax,  and  wool  in  the  manufacture  of  plushes  and  carpets. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  part  of  the  flax  plant  produces  the  linen  fiber?     Name 
the  principal  countries  where  it  is  grown. 

2.  Describe  the  process  of  flax  retting. 

3.  Name  the  by-products  of  the  flax  plant  and  tell  their  uses. 

4.  Name  and  describe  the  finishing  processes  for  linen  manufac- 
ture. 

5.  Collect  samples  of  the  common  linen  materials.     Mount  with 
prices,  width,  and  use.     Mount  also  union  materials  of  cotton  and 
linen. 


CHAPTER  X 
WOOL 

THE  most  important  of  all  animal  fibers  is  wool,  which  is 
a  variety  of  hair  (see  Fig.  64).  It  is  the  soft,  curly  coat 
of  the  sheep  and  some  other  animals,  like  the  angora  goat, 
camel,  and  alpaca.  Wool  varies  in  fineness,  and  the  coarse 
wools  are  called  hair.  The  principal  difference  is  that  hair 
has  a  smooth  surface  and  lies  straight,  and  the  wool  is  char- 
acterized by  its  wavy  length,  fineness,  softness,  luster,  and 
serrated  surface.  The  serrations  can  be  seen  microscopically 
and  resemble  the  overlapping  of  the  scales  of  the  pine  cone. 

Where  grown.  —  Sheep  have  been  raised  for  clothing 
wools  from  time  immemorial.  Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep, 
and  King  David  of  Israel  wrote  some  of  his  beautiful  psalms 
as  he  tended  the  sheep  on  the  hillside.  Nero  had  the  walls 
of  his  palace  covered  with  gorgeous  textures  of  wool.  Pliny 
speaks  of  the  use  of  wool  and  linen.  Homer  and  Virgil 
describe  the  processes  of  wool  preparations,  and  Alexander, 
in  early  days,  on  expeditions  to  India,  saw  woolen  shawls 
of  great  beauty.  The  wool  industry  in  Australia,  England, 
South  America,  South  Africa,  and  the  United  States  is  very 
extensive.  England,  Spain,  and  Germany  all  give  much 
attention  to  sheep  raising. 

Many  varieties  of  sheep  furnish  wool.  The  merino  sheep 
gives  the  finest.  The  angora  goat  of  Asia  Minor  provides 
us  with  mohair,  a  beautiful,  lustrous  fiber  resembling  silk. 
The  llama  and  alpaca  wools  are  found  on  sheep  of  Peru  and 
Chili.  The  camel  also  furnishes  a  beautiful  soft  fiber. 

148 


150  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Varieties  of  wool.  —  Wool  fibers  vary  in  length,  strength, 
fineness,  softness,  luster,  and  elasticity.  Among  different 
breeds  of  sheep  the  staple  (or  length  of  fiber)  is  very  different. 
The  average  is  about  seven  to  eight  inches.  The  fibers  also 
vary  in  the  number  of  serrations  to  the  inch.  A  micro- 
scopical examination  of  the  wool  fiber  will  reveal  the  surface 
covering  of  minute  scales.  These  are  very  important,  for 
upon  them  depends  the  felting  property  of  wool,  which  is  its 
chief  characteristic.  It  is  the  interlocking  of  these  small 
serrations  or  scales  of  the  fibers  as  they  are  mixed  that  makes 
possible  the  close  texture  of  cloth  and  yarn.  In  fine  felting 
wools  there  are  as  many  as  three  thousand  serrations  to  an 
inch  of  wool  fiber.  The  microscope  also  reveals  the  porous 
nature  of  the  fiber ;  the  center  or  pith  can  be  seen  in  a  trans- 
verse section.  This  characteristic  enables  wool  to  take  dye 
readily. 

The  length  and  quality  of  the  wool  staple  are  affected  by 
climate,  breed,  and  soil.  Where  the  pasture  is  rocky  and 
soil  barren,  the  wool  is  generally  coarse.  The  cross  breeding 
of  sheep  produces  many  qualities.  Many  varieties  find  their 
origin  in  different  climatic  conditions.  In  southern  Eng- 
land, where  it  is  warmer  than  in  the  north,  the  wool  is 
short  and  fine.  If  the  sheep  are  removed  north,  the  wool 
grows  longer  and  stronger.  Commercially  there  are  three 
varieties  of  wool:  the  long,  coarse  wools,  used  for  carpets 
and  knitting  because  of  strength;  the  short  clothing  wools, 
about  three  or  four  inches  in  length ;  and  the  long  wools  of 
good  quality  called  combing  wools  —  about  ten  inches  in 
length.  The  Saxony  and  Silesian  wools  are  very  fine  in 
quality.  The  fiber  is  not  long,  but  has  excellent  felting 
properties.  English  wools  are  of  several  qualities.  The  long 
wools  are  from  Lincoln  and  Leicestershire,  the  shorter  from 
Suffolk  and  Shropshire.  There  are  several  varieties  of 


WOOL  151 

Australian  wools.  A  coating  of  wool  as  sheared  from  a 
sheep  is  called  a  fleece.1  Fleeces  vary  in  weight  both  as  be- 
tween different  breeds  and  different  animals  of  the  same 
breed. 

Wool  culture.  —  The  sheep  industry  of  the  United  States 
is  a  very  important  one.  The  great  states  of  the  West, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Oregon,  and  Montana,  support  over  35  mil- 
lion sheep.  Sheep  are  generally  sheared  once  a  year,  usually 
in  April  or  May.  The  old  method  with  hand  shears  has  been 
succeeded  by  the  use  of  the  machine  clippers,  for  with  such 
vast  numbers  it  is  necessary  to  use  power.  On  the  large 
ranches  these  power  plants  are  installed  at  various  places. 
The  machine  method  saves  much  wool,  as  it  shears  closer. 
The  fleeces  are  tied  into  bundles  and  then  packed  in  sacks 
which  hold  about  400  pounds.  They  are  then  ready  to  be 
taken  to  certain  wool  shipping  centers,  where  buyers  examine 
and  purchase  large  quantities. 

Manufacture  of  yarn  from  wool.  —  When  the  wool  is  un- 
packed at  the  mill  it  is  said  to  be  "  in  the  grease,"  that  is,  the 
fleece  is  greasy,  dirty,  and  unwashed  (see  Fig.  65)  .2  The 
first  process  is  to  divide  the  fleece  into  different  grades ;  this 
is  called  wool  sorting,  for  wool  from  the  head  and  upper 
part  of  the  back  and  sides  is  finer  than  that  from  the. belly 
or  shins.  Usually  about  six  or  seven  grades  are  enough  to 
separate  it  for  spinning  yarns  of  different  qualities. 

Wools  cannot  be  made  into  yarns  until  the  impurities  are 

1  Other  wools  besides  sheared  wools  come  to  the  mill  to  be  sorted.     That 
from  pelts  of  dead  sheep  is  called  dead  wool.     Wool  from  sheep  that  have 
been  slaughtered  is  called  pulled  wool.     The  pelts  after  being  washed  are 
treated  with  a  preparation  that  loosens  the  root  of  wool  fiber  from  the  pelt. 

2  The  wool  is  sometimes  shipped  as  washed  wool,  the  sheep  having  been 
washed  on  the  farm  before  shearing.     Most  manufacturers  prefer  the  wool 
in  the  grease  because  it  is  better  preserved  in  shipping,  although  dirt  and 
grease  are  weighed  with  the  wool. 


152 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


removed.  The  grease  of  the  wool  is  called  yolk.  This  is 
the  secretion  from  the  skin  of  the  animal  and  forms  an  en- 
crusting surface  to  the  fiber  with  the  dirt  and  sand  and  pre- 
serves and  keeps  it  soft.  Wools  from  warmest  countries 
have  most  yolk.  As  much  as  two  thirds  of  the  weight  of 
the  fleece  may  be  yolk  and  dirt. 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whittall 


FIG.  65.  —  Wool  sorting. 


This  grease  must  be  washed  from  the  wool  before  it  can  be 
carded,  and  the  washing  must  be  done  carefully  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  fiber.  Soft  soap  made  from  caustic  potash  is  the 
most  harmless.  Soft  water  at  a  low  temperature  (about 
120°  F.)  is  necessary,  as  the  high  temperature  harms  it 


WOOL  153 

very  much.  Strong  alkalies  destroy  wool,  and  washing  to 
remove  impurities  must  be  done  carefully.  The  wool  in 
factories  is  washed  in  a  series  of  tanks,  usually  five,  and  the 
wool  passed  by  rollers  from  one  tank  to  another  (see  Fig. 
66).  The  wool  in  the  tanks  is  swished  back  and  forth  by 
means  of  wooden  forks  which  carry  it  forward  and  beat  out 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whiuall. 

FIG.  66.  — Wool  washing  or  scouring.     Notice  the  rakes  in  the  machines  which 
move  the  wool  back  and  forth  in  scouring. 

the  wool.  After  leaving  the  washing  machine  the  wool 
is  dried  in  the  "  hydro-extractor  "  and  beaten  into  a  fluffy 
mass.  About  70  per  cent  of  the  moisture  is  driven  off. 
Wool,  because  of  the  nature  of  the  fiber,  has  the  power  to 
retain  a  certain  amount  of  moisture,  up  to  30  per  cent  of  its 


154 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


weight,  hence  it  is  said  to  be    hygroscopic.     This  moisture 
helps  to  keep  the  fiber  soft. 

After  the  wool  has  been  washed  it  is  necessary  to  return 
to  it  some  of  the  oil  which  has  been  removed  in  order  to  help 


Courtesy  ofM.  J.  Whittall. 

FIG.  67. — Wool  carding.     Notice  the  round  cylinders  revolving  around  the 
center  cylinder.     The  web  is  being  delivered  into  the  can  at  the  front. 


in  the  spinning  process  and  make  it  soft  and  elastic.     Olive 
oil  of  good  quality  is  used. 

Wool  although  carefully  washed  may  still  contain  burrs, 
leaves,  and  dirt  which  the  sheep  have  gathered  in  the  pasture. 
These  must  be  removed,  because  if  left  in  the  wool  they 
would  later  cause  it  to  break.  Sometimes  a  machine  called 
a  burr  picker  is  used  in  which  the  dirt  is  beaten  out.  More 


WOOL  155 

often  a  chemical  process — carbonizing — for  removing  the 
vegetable  matter  is  used.  The  wool  is  immersed  in  a  weak 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  then  dried  at  a  temperature  of 
75°  C.  Vegetable  matter  becomes  dust  and  is  easily  re- 
moved. After  being  freed  from  burrs  by  carbonizing,  wool 
is  ready  for  the  first  spinning  process. 

It  seldom  happens  that  new  pure  wool  is  used  exclusively 
for  fabrics.  When  it  is,  the  cost  of  the  material  is  very  high. 
Of  such  material  there  would  probably  not  be  enough  to  clothe 
everybody.  Wool  is  therefore  blended  or  mixed  before  it 
goes  to  the  carding  machine  to  be  further  cleansed  and  mixed. 
This  blending  is  done  for  several  reasons.  Each  manufac- 
turer knows  what  style,  color,  and  grade  of  material  he 
wishes  to  produce,  and  blends  his  wool  accordingly.  Cheap- 
ness of  quality  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  blending, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  this,  few  of  us  could  afford  woolen  gar- 
ments. The  wools  to  be  blended  are  spread  out  in  thin 
layers,  and  passed  through  a  machine  which  pulls  the  wool 
apart  and  mixes  it.  The  products  that  are  used  in  mixing 
to  reduce  the  cost  are  remanufactured  wool  and  substitutes. 
At  this  point  the  manufacturer  may  mix  in  cotton  or  jute  if 
he  wishes  to  adulterate  or  produce  a  very  cheap  fabric. 

If,  however,  he  wishes  an  all  wool  cheap  fabric  the  sub- 
stitutes used  are  shoddy,  mungo,  noils,  flocks,  and  extracts. 
Shoddy  is  made  from  old  rags  of  woolen  materials,  such  as 
stockings,  flannels,  soft  underwear  —  materials  which  have 
not  been  felted.  The  rags  are  ground,  washed,  and  prepared 
for  mixing  with  the  new  wool.  Mungo  is  derived  from  wool 
rags  which  are  of  felted  materials,  such  as  broadcloth  and 
fabrics  for  men's  suitings.  Flocks  is  the  waste  from  the 
finishing  machines  when  cloth  is  clipped  or  sheared.  Noils 
are  the  short  fibers  left  from  the  combing  machines,  which  use 
the  long  fibers  only.  Extracts  are  the  wools  that  are  obtained 


156 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


by  carbonization  from  old  materials  which  had  been  made 
from  the  union  of  materials.  The  manufacturer  selects 
from  these  remanufactured  products  those  best  adapted  to 
produce  the  grade  of  yarn  he  wishes.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
yarn  made  from  wool,  worsted  and  woolen,  and  these  are  quite 
different  in  character  and  used  for  different  grades  of  cloth. 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whittall. 

FIG.  68.  — Wool  combing.     This  machine  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  high 
grade  wools.    There  is  much  waste. 

Worsted  yarns  are  made  from  wool  that  is  prepared  for 
spinning  so  that  the  fibers  lie  parallel.  It  is  stronger  than 
woolen  yarn.  Long  wool  is  used,  and  it  goes  through  several 
combing  processes  so  that  the  short  fibers  are  removed  and 
the  long,  straight  ones  used.  This  makes  an  expensive  yarn. 


FIG.  69.  —  From  raw  wool  to  cloth.     Showing  reduction  in  size  of  roving, 

as  it  passes  from  machine  to  machine. 

157 


158          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Combed  worsted  yarn  of  fine  quality  is  used  for  high  grade 
worsted  materials  and  underwear.  Woolen  yarn  is  not 
combed,  but  carded  a  great  deal  so  that  the  fibers  lie  in  every 
possible  direction.  The  serrations  of  the  wool  fibers  are  thus 
arranged  for  felting,  when  a  warm  temperature  loosens  up 
the  gelatinous  scales  of  the  fiber  and  they  interlock.  One 
can  readily  understand  why  yarn  for  underwear  should  not 
be  carded  very  much.  The  woolen  yarn  is  woven  into 
cloth  which  is  felted,  and  we  have  the  close,  beautiful  broad- 
cloths and  meltons. 

Wool  carding  is  the  first  operation  in  preparation  for  spin- 
ning (see  Fig.  67).  The  wool  carder  *  accomplishes  the 
same  result  as  the  cotton  carding  machine.  The  wool 
carder  is  composed  of  a  number  of  small  cylinders  which  re- 
volve around  a  central  one.  The  wool  passes  from  the 
carder  in  the  form  of  a  gauzy  lap  the  width  of  the  machine, 
mixed  and  cleansed  and  delivered  as  a  sliver  or  rope  of  wool 
in  the  cans  placed  to  receive  it.  If  the  wool  is  to  be  combed, 
the  wool  slivers  are  passed  through  the  combing  machines 
to  be  laid  parallel.  The  wool  combing  machine  is  very  com- 
plicated. Fine  wire  teeth  separate  and  comb  the  fiber  and 
deliver  it  in  the  form  of  a  huge  ball  of  soft,  ropelike  wool  (see 
Fig.  68).  These  balls  are  called  "tops"  in  the  trade.  Many 
manufacturers  are  engaged  in  making  "tops"  for  various 
spinning  manufacturers  making  yarns.  At  this  point  combed 
wools  are  put  through  a  set  of  machines  called  gill  boxes, 
which  further  straighten  and  arrange  the  fibers.  Before  the 
wool  slivers  are  ready  for  spinning  they  must  be  drawn  out 
and  doubled,  as  in  the  process  of  cotton  yarn  manufacture,  by 
means  of  the  drawing  and  roving  frames.  These  machines 
gradually  reduce  the  thickness  of  the  roving  and  put  in  some 
twist  (see  Fig.  69).  The  woolen  or  worsted  yarn  is  then 
ready  for  spinning.  Woolen  spinning  is  either  intermittent, 


WOOL 


159 


as  in  mule  spinning,  or  continuous,  as  in  ring  spinning.     The 
mule  is  better  adapted  to  the  spinning  of  woolen  yarn,  and 
the    ring    and    other 
continuous  frames  to 
worsted  (see  Figs.  70, 
71,  72). 

Manufacture  of 
cloth  from  wool.  - 
The  yarn,  either 
worsted  or  woolen,  is 
warped  for  the  loom 
warp  beam  or  wound 


Courtesy  of  Johnson  and  Bassett. 
FIG.  70.  —  The  old  way  of  spinning  on  the 
great  wheel. 


on    bobbins    for    the 

woof.     Wool,  like 

cotton,  can  be  made 

in  many  counts  or  numbers  —  fine  or  coarse  yarns.     Fabrics 

made  from  wool  are  numerous  in  design,  from  the  plain 

homespun  weave  to  the  more  complicated  patterns  of  double 


Courtesy  of  Johnson  and  Bassett. 
FIG.  71.  — The  modern  way  of  spinning  on  Self-acting  Mule. 

cloth  weaving.  The  woolen  yarn  is  more  fuzzy  than  the  wor- 
sted, and  when  used  for  cloth  is  woven  more  loosely ;  but  in 
finishing  it  is  shrunken  to  make  a  smooth,  compact  surface. 


160 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


The  yarns  for  weaving  are  harnessed  as  described  under 
cotton  manufacture,  and  materials  of  various  patterns 
woven  (see  Fig.  73). 

Dyeing.  —  Most  wool  is  dyed  either  in  the  raw  state  or  as 
yarn  or  cloth.  Wool  takes  the  dye  readily,  which  means  that 
the  surface  of  the  fiber  takes  a  uniform  color.  Many  kinds 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whiliall. 
FIG.  72.  — This  spinning  room  shows  the  ring  spinning  machine  in  operation. 

of  dye  have  been  used.  Our  grandmothers  were  experts  in 
the  use  of  vegetables  dyes,  but  to-day  the  coal  tar  products 
are  available  in  hundreds  of  colors.  Wool  takes  dye  more 
easily  than  cotton  or  linen.  The  dyeing  of  cloth  is  done  in 
large  vats  on  rollers ;  when  dyed  in  the  hank,  the  yarn  is 
lifted  on  sticks  in  and  out  of  large  tanks  containing  the  dye 


WOOL 


161 


(see  Fig.  74).      Yarn  dyeing  is   better  adapted   for  use  in 
weaving  certain  fabrics  (see  Fig.  75). 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whittatt. 
FIG.  73.  — This  shows  the  Jacquard  loom  used  for  weaving  rugs  and  carpets. 


162  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Finishing  of  Wool  Fabrics.  —  On  account  of  style  and  the 
rapid  changes  from  year  to  year  manufacturers  must  finish 
their  materials  so  as  to  meet  the  demands  of  trade.  This 
means  that  the  blending,  dyeing,  kind  of  weave,  finishing, 
must  all  be  carefully  considered.  There  are,  of  course, 
certain  fabrics  which  are  staple  goods  and  always  finished 
in  the  same  way,  but  the  fancy  weaves  must  vary  yearly. 
Worsted  cloths  do  not  require  as  many  finishing  processes 
as  do  the  woolen  fabrics.  The  materials  after  weaving  are 
first  inspected  over  rods  for  imperfections,  and  a  process 
called  burling  takes  place.  The  examiner  cuts  the  broken 
ends  tied  by  the  weaver,  marks  the  places  to  be  mended, 
and  then  sends  them  to  the  mending  room.  There  materials 
are  darned  and  mistakes  in  weave  corrected.  This  is  very 
exact  work,  requiring  skill.  The  material,  rather  loosely 
woven,  is  then  ready  for  the  next  finishing  process  of  fulling. 
The  aim  of  this  is  to  produce  a  smooth,  stronger,  firmer 
material. 

Worsted  materials  are  fulled  or  shrunken  little ;  woolen, 
a  great  deal.  Material  woven  seventy-two  inches  wide  is 
often  felted  to  fifty-four  inches.  This  process  is  done  in 
large  vats  with  water  and  soap,  and  at  a  certain  warm 
temperature.  The  serrations  of  the  wool  fibers  open,  inter- 
lock, and  as  the  water  gradually  cools,  remain  interlocked. 
In  fulling  broadcloths  and  other  closely  woven  materials 
this  process  is  continued  for  a  greater  length  of  time  than  for 
worsted  materials.  The  physical  properties  of  the  wool 
fibers  make  this  change  possible.  The  cloth  is  dried,  and 
then  tentered  or  stretched.  After  tentering  some  moisture 
is  again  added  to  the  cloth  before  the  process  of  napping. 
Some  materials  have  a  decidedly  napped  surface,  as  in 
blankets.  The  cloth  is  passed  between  rollers  covered  with 
teazels.  The  points  rough  the  surface  as  the  cloth  passes 


WOOL  163 

between  the  rollers.  The  cloth  is  then  sometimes  sheared. 
This  produces  "  flocks  or  filling,"  the  fuzz  clipped  from  the 
cloth,  which  is  sometimes  used  in  the  process  of  fulling, 
where  it  is  introduced  as  adulterant  to  produce  a  firmer 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whtttall. 
FIG.  74.  — The  dyeing  of  hanks  of  wool. 

broadcloth.  The  "  flocks  "  shakes  out  as  the  material  is 
worn.  One  sometimes  notices  in  woolen  skirts  the  accumula- 
tion in  seams  and  hems  of  this  soft,  woolly  substance.  After 
shearing,  the  cloth  is  ready  for  the  final  pressing  and  is 
marketable  or  ready  for  the  wholesale  dealer. 

Other  uses  of  yarn  made  from  wool.  —  Woolen  or  worsted 
yarns  are  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  (see  Fig. 


164 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


73),  rugs,  underwear,  hosiery  (see  Fig.  76),  blankets,  and  for 
hand  knitting  purposes  —  shawls,  afghans,  caps,  sweaters, 
and  innumerable  small  articles.  Woolen  and  worsted  yarns 
are  often  combined  with  cotton  in  the  adulteration  of 
wool  fabrics.  Shoddy  or  worked  over  wool  fabrics  are 


Courtesy  of  M.  J.  Whittall. 

FIG.  75.  —  Drying  yarn.    After  the  wool  has  been  wound  into  hanks  it  is 
dyed  and  dried. 

usually  legitimate  additions,  but  cotton  yarns  combined  with 
wool  in  the  twisting  of  yarn  or  combed  with  it  are  not  legit- 
imate unless  sold  for  what  they  are.  The  pictures  in  this 
chapter  show  the  steps  in  the  making  of  rugs  and  carpets 
of  good  quality.  Notice  especially  the  Jacquard  carpet 
loom. 


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WOOL 


169 


Wool  industry  of  the  United  States.  —  Since  the  early 
manufacture  of  wool  as  a  household  industry,  where  all 
processes  were  done  by  hand  at 
home,  there  have  been  rapid 
strides  until  in  1911  the  wool 
product  of  the  United  States 
was  estimated  at  318,547,900 
pounds.  From  the  home  as  a 
center  of  manufacture  we  have 
the  development  of  the  factory, 
with  200,000  people  engaged  in 
woolen  and  worsted  manufac- 
ture. The  importations  of  wool 
in  the  United  States  vary;'  in 
1910,  264  million  pounds  of 
foreign  wools  were  brought  in, 
and  in  1911,  138  million. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  cloth- 
ing wool  used  by  American 
manufacturers  is  raised  here. 
Massachusetts  has  been  the 
center  of  woolen  manufacture 
in  the  United  States.  The  first 
factory  was  located  at  Newbury, 
Massachusetts,  in  1790.  After 

the  Civil  War  there  were  higher  duties  on  wool  fabrics,  and 
the  number  of  factories  increased  rapidly.  The  consumption 
per  capita  of  wool  averaged  three  pounds  before  the  factory 
era ;  now  it  is  six.  The  price  of  wool  varies  with  the  market 
from  $.15  to  $.30  per  pound. 


Courtesy  of  H.  Brinlon  Company. 
FIG.    76.  —  Knitting    machine. 
Underwear  and  stockings  are 
made  on  similar  machines. 


170  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  microscopical   appearance  of   wool  and  give 
characteristics  of  this  fiber. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  wool  mixing  ?     How  does  this  enable  the 
manufacturer  to  grade  the  price  of  wool  ? 

3.  Why  is  wool  for  underwear  carded  a  great  deal  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  a  "pure  textile  law"  ? 

5.  How  are  woolen  fabrics  adulterated  ?      Is  adulteration  ever 
legitimate  ? 

6.  Collect  and  mount  samples  of  the  common  wool  materials  — 
with  width,  price,  and  use.     Also  some  mixtures  of  cotton  and  wool. 

7.  How  important  is  the  wool  industry  in  the  United  States  ? 

8.  Test  some  wool  materials  for  shrinkage  and  adulteration. 

9.  For  what  other  purposes  is  wool  yarn  used  besides  cloth  ? 
10.  Describe  the  process  of  wool  carding. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SILK 

SILK  is  the  most  costly  as  well  as  the  strongest  and  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  common  fibers.  This  wonderful  animal 
fiber  of  great  length  is  a  monument  to  the  industry  of  the 
tiny  insects  which  produce  it.  It  is  the  covering  in  the  form 
of  a  cocoon  within  which  the  transformation  of  the  insect 
takes  place  (see  Fig.  77).  It  is  often  produced  at  lengths 
of  from  one  to  four  thousand  feet.  It  is  the  secretion, 
formed  by  the  worms  at  a  certain  time  in  their  life  history, 
which  emerges  from  two  tiny  orifices  at  the  sides  of  the  head. 
These  tiny  filaments  form  into  one  as  the  gelatinous  secretion 
hardens  in  contact  with  the  air  and  forms  a  fine  elastic  fiber 
as  the  worm  throws  its  head  back  and  forth  in  spinning. 
In  Latin  the  word  is  serricum,  in  Chinese  the  ancient  name 
was  seres. 

Where  grown.  —  Silkworms  are  raised  principally  in  coun- 
tries where  labor  is  not  expensive.  They  require  much  care 
and  attention  during  their  life  growth.  Japan,  China,  Italy, 
and  Asia  Minor  produce  most  of  the  raw  silk  of  commerce, 
Silk  culture  in  the  United  States  has  failed  on  account  of  the 
cost  of  labor. 

Varieties  of  silk.  —  There  are  many  varieties  of  caterpillars 
secreting  silk,  but  the  one  of  greatest  value  commercially  is 
the  Bombyx  mori,  or  mulberry  silk  moth  of  China,  and 
closely  allied  varieties.  They  belong  to  the  order  Lepidoptera 
and  'the  family  of  the  Bombycidse.  There  are  also  certain 
wild  moths  that  are  utilized  in  the  silk  industry.  The  most 

171 


172          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

important  of  those  producing  wild  silk  are  natives  of  India 
and  China.  The  silk  is  inferior,  and  is  known  as  "Tussah" 
silk.  It  has  a  use,  however,  in  the  manufacture  of  velvets 
and  plushes.  The  wild  moth  is  very  valuable,  however,  be- 
cause its  silk  is  used  for  much  of  the  pongee  which  is  made. 

A  microscopical  examination  of  the  silk  of  the  Bombyx 
mori  shows  a  somewhat  flattened  combination  of  two  tiny 
filaments.  It  is  of  a  horny,  gelatinous  nature. 

Silk  culture  originated  in  China  about  3400  B.C.  It  is 
said  that  in  2460  B.C.  the  wife  of  Emperor  Huangti,  Si  Ling 
Chi,  devoted  her  time  to  the  raising  of  silkworms  and  to 
reeling  or  unwinding  of  silk  from  the  cocoons.  This  secret 
was  guarded  for  a  long  time.  Japanese  history  shows  that 
knowledge  of  the  industry  reached  there  through  Korea.  A 
knowledge  of  silk  culture  traveled  westward  to  India  and 
Europe.  In  910  the  Moors  imported  silk  culture  into  Spain, 
and  by  the  twelfth  century  it  was  known  in  Greece  and  Italy. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  common  in  France.  Since 
then  silk  culture  has  grown  rapidly  in  importance. 

Silk  culture  (see  Fig.  77). — The  silk  moth  Bombyx  mori 
lays  her  eggs,  which  are  as  tiny  as  a  mustard  seed.  These 
eggs  are  collected  and  kept  cool  until  hatching  time,  when 
they  are  exposed  to  heat.  The  tiny  worms  hatched  from  these 
eggs  grow  rapidly,  as  they  are  fed  on  chopped  mulberry 
leaves,  and  in  about  a  month  they  reach  their  full  size  of 
about  three  inches  in  length  (see  Fig.  78).  During  that 
period  they  require  constant  care  in  order  that  lack  of  food 
and  cleanliness  may  not  breed  disease.  When  grown,  the 
caterpillar  begins  to  spin  the  cocoon,  which  is  composed 
of  many  feet  of  silk  fiber  in  a  parchment-like  mass,  closely 
held  together  with  the  gelatinous  fluid  (see  Fig.  79).  This 
cannot  be  removed  without  soaking.  Cocoons  are  uniform 
in  shape,  about  one  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  white  or 


174 


SHELTER  AND   CLOTHING 


yellow  in  color.  The  outside  is  covered  with  loose,  flossy 
filaments.  About  three  weeks  after  the  completion  of  the 
cocoon,  the  caterpillar,  which  has  been  transformed  during 
that  time  into  a  moth,  is  ready  to  escape.  If  he  escapes,  the 
mating  with  other  moths  takes  place,  and  the  life  history  is 


.^^^•vv^\W^-  •  :  3^ 

C£&i-^*&t~f.-- •„'.  ."-r v^:>- •_&„•?  *,-o;  ^-.,;-t> 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 
FIG.  78.  —  Feeding  worms  chopped  mulberry  leaves  and  clearing  litter. 

repeated.  If,  instead,  the  cocoon  is  subjected  to  great 
heat,  the  worm  moth  inside  dies,  and  the  cocoons  are  ready 
commercially  to  be  reeled.  When  the  moth  is  permitted  to 
escape,  he  works  his  way  out  of  his  prison  by  moistening  one 
end  and  slowly  emerging,  thus  spoiling  the  cocoon  for  reel- 
ing purposes.  The  gum  of  the  cocoon  must  be  separated 
from  the  filaments  so  that  it  will  reel  easily.  The  cocoons 
are  placed  in  hot  water,  which  softens  the  gum.  The  ends 


SILK  175 

are  then  caught  from  four  or  five,  and  wound  through  a 
guide  upon  a  reel.  About  five  of  these  double  filaments 
make  up  the  thickness  of  a  strand  of  raw  silk.  This  reeled 
silk  is  made  up  into  hanks  and  sold  as  raw  silk  by  the  pound 
and  varies  in  price  from  $7  to  $10  (see  Figs.  80  and 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
FIG.  79.  —  Cocoons. 

81).  Three  thousand  silkworms  are  required  to  spin  one 
pound  of  raw  silk.  From  one  to  two  pounds  are  necessary 
to  make  a  dress. 

Silk  yarn  manufacture.  —  The  silk  industry  in  the  United 
States  is  engaged  principally  in  relation  to  the  manufacture 
of  silk.  The  hanks  of  raw  silk  are  imported  in  bales  weighing 
from  100  to  160  pounds.  Hanks  weigh  several  ounces  each, 
and  they  are  packed  in  bundles  of  five  or  ten  pounds.  The 
hanks  go  first  to  the  throwster.  Silk  throwing  consists  of 
soaking  the  skeins  to  remove  some  gum  in  order  to  wind  the 
silk  from  the  skeins.  The  skeins  of  raw  silk  are  placed  on 


176 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


reels  and  unwound  on  spools.  A  skein  is  made  up  of  from 
75  to  200,000  yards  of  silk.  The  spools  are  then  placed  in 
the  machine,  which  winds  (see  Fig.  82)  two  or  more  together 
and  puts  in  a  twist,  so  that  they  form  one  yarn.  This  is 
called  "  organzine  "  and  is  used  for  warp  on  the  loom.  The 


FIG.  80. 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
-Some  hanks  of  reeled  silk. 


woof  yarn  is  called  "  tram."  It  is  usually  not  as  good  a 
quality  of  silk,  and  is  only  loosely  twisted.  "  Singles  "  is 
sometimes  used  for  warp  and  woof  in  goods  dyed  in  the  piece 
or  after  weaving.  "  Singles  "  is  the  thread  of  raw  silk 
wound  on  spools  without  much  or  any  twisting.  Silk  re- 
quires very  little  preparation,  in  comparison  with  wool  and 
cotton,  as  it  is  fine  and  continuous,  although  finer  and 
smaller  in  diameter  towards  .the  center  of  the  cocoon.  It 
is  the  most  perfect  fiber. 

Silk  thread  manufacture.  —  Silk  is  received  in  hanks  by 
the  manufacturer  of  sewing  silk.     The  hanks  are  soaked  in 


SILK 


177 


warm  water,  dried,  and  reeled  from  the  swift  to  bobbins. 
Two  or  more  are  doubled  as  for  organzine  or  tram ;  then 
doubled  again  and  twisted  in  the  opposite  direction  and 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
FIG.  81.  — Reeled  and  waste  silk. 


stretched.  Embroidery  silks  and  twists  are  made  in  a  simi- 
lar way,  more  or  less  twisting  and  stretching  being  done  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  sewing  thread  desired.  Dyeing  and 
spooling  follow  (see  Fig.  83). 


178 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


Silk  cloth  manufacture  (see  Fig.  84). — Silk  yarn  is  some* 
times  woven  into  cloth  before  it  is  dyed,  but  more  often  it 
is  dyed  in  the  yarn.  The  preparation  of  the  organzine  for 
the  warp  beam  is  similar  to  that  described  under  flax  warping. 
The  threads  on  spools  are  placed  on  the  reel  and  the  warp 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 
FIG.  82.  — Winding  room.     Silk  on  swifts. 

prepared  on  the  warping  frames  and  transferred  to  the  warp 
beams  ready  for  the  back  of  the  loom.  The  Jacquard  harness 
is  used  a  great  deal  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  and  all  kinds 
of  beautiful  patterns  in  satins,  silk,  brocades,  ribbons,  and 
velvets  can  be  produced  by  this  wonderful  invention  (see 
Fig.  85).  The  shuttle  contains  the  bobbin  filled  with  the 
tram  or  woof.  The  shuttle  is  lined  with  sealskin  to  protect 
the  filament.  Silk  cloth  is  made  not  only  of  reeled  silk,  but 


SILK  179 

of  the  silk  waste  called  spun  silk.  This  waste  consists  of  the 
broken  threads  of  manufacture,  the  cocoons  which  have 
been  pierced  by  the  moth  emerging  and  so  are  not  con- 
tinuous thread,  the  outside  fibers  of  the  unpierced  cocoons, 
and  the  innermost  part  next  to  the  chrysalis.  This  waste  is 


sy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 
FIG.  83.  —  Dyeing.     Skein  dyeing  by  machinery. 

boiled  to  remove  gum,  is  then  carded  and  passed  through 
doubling  and  drawing  frames  as  in  cotton  spinning,  and  the 
silk  rovings  are  spun.  It  is  then  reeled  into  skeins  for 
weaving  yarns  or  other  purposes.  Silk  ribbons  are  woven 
on  wide  looms,  but  with  a  number  of  pieces  or  widths  in 
one  loom  with  a  small  shuttle  for  each  width. 

Silk  dyeing  and  finishing.  —  Silk  is  dyed  in  the  yarn  or  in 
the  piece.     Thrown  silk  is  sent  to  the  dyer,  who  boils  out  the 


180         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

gum,  which  is  about  25  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  silk. 
Some  manufacturers,  in  order  to  make  as  much  profit  as  pos- 
sible, load  the  thrown  silk  before  it  is  dyed.  This  is  done  by 
dipping  the  silk  yarn  in  bichloride  of  tin  or  other  substances 
which  the  yarn  absorbs  until  often  it  weighs  from  twice 
to  four  times  as  much  as  the  boiled-off  silk.  When  exposed 


Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers. 
FIG.  84. — Weaving.     Primitive  hand  loom. 

to  action  of  air  and  light  these  chemicals  rot  the  silk  fiber  and 
the  filament  crumbles  away.  In  order  to  overcome  the  loss 
after  the  degumming  of  the  silk,  all  kinds  of  processes  have 
been  used.  Weighting  is  added  not  only  in  the  throwing,  but 
often  also  in  the  dyeing.  The  filling  generally  carries  more 
weighting  than  the  warp,  which  must  be  strong  for  the  warp- 
ing. For  dyeing,  the  coal  tar  products  ("  aniline  dyes  ")  are 


Courtesy  of  Grampian  &  Knowles. 
FIG.  85.  — Beautiful  figured  silks  and  ribbons  are  woven  on  the  Jacquard  loom. 


181 


182          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

used  principally.  Black  silks  are  weighted  more  than  light 
colored.  Salts  of  tin  and  iron  are  used  for  weighting,  and  for 
the  best  black  silks  logwood  is  the  dye.  Only  inferior  silks 
are  dyed  in  the  piece.  If  silk  has  been  woven  with  the 
gum  in  it,  this  must  be  removed  before  the  fabric  is  dyed  or 
printed. 

Pattern  or  figure  may  be  produced  by  weaving,  printing, 
stenciling,  or  embroidering.  In  weaving,  the  Jacquard 
harness  produces  wonderful  patterns.  Printing,  to-day,  is 
done  by  means  of  cylinders  on  which  the  design  is  engraved. 
Other  cylinders  supply  color  to  the  design,  and  the  necessary 
pattern  in  color  is  transferred  to  the  cloth.  This  is  then 
steamed  to  fix  the  colors,  and  finished.  Sometimes  the  warp 
threads  are  stamped  with  a  figure  and  then  woven  with  a 
plain  woof.  The  result  is  an  indistinct  pattern.  Many  so- 
called  Dresden  ribbons  are  woven  in  this  way.  Printing  is 
also  done  in  a  more  primitive  way  in  Japan  and  China. 
Stencils  and  wood  blocks  are  used.  The  effects  are  often 
very  beautiful,  but  the  process  is  slow.  William  Morris  pro- 
duced some  beautiful  designs  and  effects  by  block  printing 
on  cotton  cloth.  There  are  other  finishing  processes.  Some- 
times the  surface  is  simply  smoothed,  or  pressed.  Again  it 
is  moireed  or  watered  by  means  of  rollers  engraved  so  that 
the  moireed  effect  is  left  on  the  silk.  It  is  sometimes  singed 
and  gassed  in  the  piece  or  sized  with  starch  or  glue  to  make 
it  stiff.  There  are  also  machines  for  calendering  or  ironing 
it,  stretching  machines,  embossing,  and  various  finishing 
machines  for  special  purposes.  Sometimes  a  piece  of  silk 
will  be  treated  as  many  as  fifty  or  more  ways  after  it  is 
woven. 


SILK 


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186          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Other  uses  of  silk.  —  Silk  yarn  is  manufactured  into  cloth, 
ribbons,  sewing  silks,  embroidery  flosses,  and  twists.  In 
addition  it  is  used  for  many  purposes.  The  secretion  of  the 
caterpillars  is  sometimes  removed  before  they  are  permitted 
to  spin  their  cocoons,  and  this  is  used  for  snells  in  fishing 
lines.  The  silk  glands  are  taken  from  the  dead  worms  and 
stretched  to  form  tough,  sinew-like  cords.  This  costs  from 
25  to  30  dollars  a  pound.  The  electrician  uses  a  great 
deal  of  silk  for  insulating  wires  and  for  other  purposes, 
the  surgeon  for  various  uses,  such  as  the  tying  of  arteries, 
and  the  dentist,  bookbinder,  and  others  have  many  uses  for 
the  products  of  this  tiny  worm.  Much  yarn  is  consumed  in 
the  manufacture  of  velvets,  plushes,  hosiery,  gloves,  knitting, 
and  other  silks. 

Other  silk  fibers.  —  Artificial  silk  has  been  manufactured 
in  order  that  a  substitute  for  silk  may  be  used  to  reduce 
cost.  There  are  several  silk  substitutes,  some  natural  and 
others  manufactured.  Wool  or  cotton  is  treated  by  different 
methods  to  produce  filaments  which  can  be  spun  like  real 
silk.  Artificial  silk  has  much  luster,  but  lacks  the  elasticity  of 
real  silk.  Spiders  in  Madagascar  produce  a  valuable  fiber, 
and  Pinna  silk,  obtained  from  the  shellfish  of  Sicily,  is  used 
there  in  the  manufacture  of  shawls,  gloves,  and  hosiery. 
There  are  also  some  seed  coverings  that  have  very  fine 
hairlike  fibers.  The  kapok  plant  furnishes  most  of  this  silk 
cotton. 

The  silk  industry  in  the  United  States.  —  America  leads 
in  the  manufacture  of  silks  and  in  the  consumption  of  raw 
products;  France  follows.  The  imports  of  raw  silk  in  1910 
were  22,000,000  pounds.  The  larger  part  of  the  silk  fabrics 
and  thread  used  here,  about  85  per  cent,  are  manufactured  in 
this  country.  Since  1850  the  manufacture  has  increased 
rapidly.  The  silk  exhibit  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of 


SILK  187 

1876  attracted  world- wide  interest.  The  states  engaged 
principally  in  silk  manufacture  are  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Connecticut.  The  development  of  this 
manufacture,  owing  to  demand  at  home  and  high  protective 
tariff,  has  been  enormous. 

Very  little  silk  has  ever  been  grown  in  America.  As  early 
as  1624  in  Virginia  certain  skilled  Frenchmen  tried  to  start 
the  raising  of  silkworms.  Since  then  many  experiments 
have  been  tried  and  have  failed,  principally  because  of  the 
cost  of  labor.  In  1747  the  governor  of  Connecticut  ap- 
peared in  stockings  and  coat,  the  silk  for  which  was  produced 
on  his  own  place. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  work  of  the  silkworm  in  producing  the  fiber. 
What  is  the  composition  of  silk  fiber  ? 

2.  Name  the  principal  countries  producing  silk  and  describe  its 
culture. 

3.  Describe  the  process  of  silk  throwing. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  possibilities  for  adulteration  during  the 
process  of  silk  dyeing  ? 

5.  Name  ten  of  the  most  common  silk  materials  and  give  prices 
and  widths.     Bring  samples  to  class. 


CHAPTER  XII 
COMPARISON    OF    WOOL,    COTTON,    SILK,    AND    FLAX 

A  STUDY  of  the  characteristics,  appearance,  and  possible 
adulteration  of  the  principal  fibers  is  necessary  in  order  that 
wise  selection  of  fabrics  may  be  made.  Women  so  often  de- 
mand quantity  where  it  would  often  be  wiser  to  think  of 
quality.  The  manufacturer  consequently  caters  to  the  con- 
sumer, and  finishes  his  fabrics  so  as  to  imitate  the  more 
luxurious  materials.  These  processes  through  which  the 
fabrics  pass  are  very  disastrous  in  their  effect  on  the  fibers, 
and  while  they  produce  low-price  goods  it  is  often  more  than 
useless  to  purchase  them. 

Microscopical  and  chemical  differences.  —  Wool  when 
examined  under  the  microscope  is  characterized  by  its  highly 
serrated  surface,  which  easily  distinguishes  it  from  other 
fibers.  In  some  fine  wools  there  are  as  many  as  2800  serrations 
to  the  inch.  Microscopical  examination  makes  it  possible 
to  distinguish  between  wools  of  high  grade  and  the  remade 
wools,  such  as  shoddy  or  mungo.  The  latter  often  accept 
the  dyes  irregularly  when  redyed  —  and  the  serrations  are 
more  uneven  because  of  the  treatment  in  the  preparation  of 
shoddy.  An  examination  without  a  microscope  shows  the 
wool  fiber  to  be  a  kinky,  wiry  fiber  which  stands  out  and  curls. 
The  wool  fiber  is,  however,  covered  with  a  grease,  the  yolk  or 
wool  fat  slightly  permeates  the  fiber  and  makes  it  soft  to 
handle.  This  is  a  natural  protection  rather  than  a  part  of 
the  fiber  substance.  Tepid  water  removes  the  yolk,  which  is 
composed  principally  of  potash  salts.  The  fiber  itself  is  a 

•        188 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   189 


nitrogenous  substance  belonging  to  the  general  group  of 
proteins  (see  Fig.  86). 

Cotton  when  seen  mi- 
croscopically differs  ma- 
terially from  wool.  In- 
stead of  the  serrated 
kinky  fiber  one  sees  rib- 
bon-like tubular  fibers 
with  more  or  less  twist. 
The  number  of  twists 
varies.  Some  good  cotton 
fibers  have  very  few. 
Unripe  and  half-ripe  fibers 
appear  without  twist,  and 

these  are    the  Ones  which  FlG-  86. -Wool  fibers  magnified. 

in  dyed  fabrics  are  very  perceptible  because  they  do  not  take 

the  dye  well.  The  twist  aids  in  the  spinning.  As  many 

as  300  twists  have  been 
counted  on  a  single  fila- 
ment. To  the  naked  eye 
cotton  fibers  appear  fluffy 
and  dull  white.  When 
woven,  the  threads  are 
regular  and  uniform. 
Chemically  the  cotton 
fiber  differs  from  wool  in 
being  almost  pure  cellu- 
lose, (C6HioO5)»,  in  its 
fully  ripe  condition. 
g^^"  When  subjected  to  mer- 

FIG.  87.  —  Cotton  fibers  magnified.  cerization,  the  caustic  soda 

affects  the  twisted  wall,  making  it  a  smooth-walled  cylinder 

(see  Fig.  87). 


190 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


Silk  fibers  from  the  cocoon  examined  microscopically  ap- 
pear without  any  charac- 
teristic markings.  They 
have  the  appearance  of  a 
somewhat  flattened  com- 
bination of  two  filaments 
of  noticeable  length  and 
continuity.  If  mercer- 
ized cotton  is  used  with 
silk,  the  microscope  re- 
veals it  by  an  occasional 
twist  in  the  cotton.  With- 
out the  glass,  silk  appears 
fine,  long,  uniform,  and 
FIG.  88.  -  Silk  fibers  magnified.  glistening.  The  fibers  fly 
and  cling  to  the  fingers.  Chemically,  silk  fiber  is  composed 
of  a  center  or  core  of  fibroin,  with  a  covering  of  silk  albumen 
or  sericin  and  a  little  waxy 
coloring  matter.  Fibroin 
is  like  horn  or  hair,  ex- 
cept for  the  sulphur,  the 
composition  being  carbon, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen  (see  Fig.  88). 

Flax  or  linen  fiber,  when 
spun,  appears  to  the  naked 
eye  as  glistening  with  oc- 
casional  irregularities   in 
the    yarn.       Microscopi- 
cally the  fibers  are  very 
like  silk,  rodlike  in  appear-          FlG"  89'  ~  Flax  fibers  ma^ified- 
ance,  but  with  occasional  node  markings      It  also  appears 
more  woody  and  rough.     A  chemical  analysis  of  the  flax 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   191 


fiber  shows  it  to  be  principally  cellulose,  (CsHioC^n,  asso- 
ciated with  certain  intercellular  matter  and  pectin  bodies 
(see  Fig.  89). 

Varying  characteristics  and  properties.  —  Wool  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  all  the  fibers,  because  of  the  extent  to 
which  we  depend  upon  it  for  warmth.     It  is  a  poor  conductor 
of  heat,  and  the  spaces  between  the  warp  and  woof  of  the 
cloth,  which  are  filled  with  air,  do  not  conduct  the  body  heat 
rapidly.     Wool  feels  warm  because  loosely  woven,  and  be- 
cause of  this  non-conducting  property.     The  hygroscopic 
capacity  of  wool  is  from  12  to  17  per  cent,  and  it  often  holds 
as  much  as  50  per  cent  moisture  in  damp  air.     It  absorbs 
slowly  and  evaporates  in  the  same  way.     A  garment  of  wool 
when  dry,  next  to  the  skin,  feels  warm,  when  wet,  the  moisture 
is  not  felt  unless  there  is  a  great  deal  of  it.     Wool  feels  soft, 
springy,  and  elastic  to  the  touch.     Wool  is  used  a  great  deal 
for  underwear.     It  is  excellent  for  young  children,  delicate 
or  old  people,  as  the  body  heat  is  not  conducted  rapidly  and 
the  slow  evaporation  of  the  moisture  prevents  rapid  cooling  of 
the  body.     There  are,  however,  drawbacks  in  the  use  of  wool 
for  underwear  which  are  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  hygiene 
of  clothing.     It  is  not  easily  cleansed  because  of  its  felting 
properties.     Cotton  and  linen  are  cooler  because  they  conduct 
the  body  heat  more  rapidly.     When  loosely  woven,  the  still 
air  between  spaces  acts  as  a  non-conductor.     Good  wool  is 
expensive,  and  the  best  combed  wool  is  used  for  underwear. 
Cotton  as  a  vegetable  fiber  is  by  contrast  hard  and  lifeless, 
not  so  yielding  or  elastic  as  wool.     It  absorbs  moisture  rather 
slowly.     It  feels  warm  to  the  touch  when  dry,  and  even  when 
moist  does  not  feel  so  cool  as  does  linen.     It  has  not  as  great 
tensile  strength  as  other  fibers. 

Cotton  burns  very  rapidly  with  light  yellow  flashes,  with 
almost  an  explosion,  and  with  an  odor  like  burning  wood. 


192         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

The  residue  is  almost  imperceptible,  a  fine,  ashy  powder. 
Wool  chars  and  burns  slowly  with  a  flickering  flame  which 
goes  out  easily  and  leaves  an  odor  of  hair,  and  a  residue. 
Consequently  it  is  the  best  fabric  to  use  as  an  extinguisher. 
Wool  is  the  third  in  tensile  strength  and  is  a  good  generator 
of  electricity  although  the  poorest  conductor  of  electricity. 
When  cotton  and  wool  mixtures  are  burned,  the  line  of  cotton 
may  be  followed  easily  as  it  burns,  leaving  the  wool.  Cotton 
washes  more  easily  than  wool  and  does  not  absorb  the  im- 
purities of  the  body  when  worn  next  to  the  skin,  but  it  resists 
dust  less  than  wool.  A  woolen  dress  will  remain  clean  longer 
than  a  cotton  one.  Cotton  is  very  absorbent  when  the  outer 
waxy  coating  has  been  removed,  and  is  of  great  value  for 
surgical  uses.  Outing  flannel,  which  is  cotton,  is  rather  dan- 
gerous for  garments,  because  so  easily  inflammable.  This  is 
because  of  the  surface  treatment  of  the  fiber,  which  makes 
it  like  guncotton.  A  modern  process  for  the  treatment  of 
outing  flannel  has  overcome  this  objection. 

Silk  fiber  has  the  greatest  tensile  strength  and  is  the  most 
elastic  fiber.  It  is  said  that  it  is  as  strong  as  an  iron  wire 
of  the  same  size.  It  feels  soft  and  smooth.  Silk  absorbs 
moisture  rapidly  and  throws  it  off  readily.  It  is  very  durable 
when  not  adulterated  and  is  warm  and  light.  It  is  a  good 
non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  is  therefore  used  for  in- 
sulating purposes.  It  has  a  great  avidity  for  moisture  and  will 
absorb  30  per  cent  of  its  weight  without  the  fact  being  per- 
ceptible. Silk  buyers  require  that  silk  shall  be  tested  for 
moisture.  In  large  manufacturing  centers,  special  houses, 
called  silk  conditioning  houses,  do  the  work.  The  aim  is  to 
determine  the  amount  of  moisture  the  buyer  is  purchasing. 
The  apparatus  for  drying  is  called  a  desiccator.  Because  of 
this  avidity  for  moisture,  silk  accepts  dye  and  weighting 
readily.  When  silk  burns  there  is  a  strong  odor  of  hair, 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   193 

but  it  is  not  as  disagreeable  as  wool.  It  burns  with  a  flicker- 
ing bluish  flame  and  leaves  a  crisp  ash.  Silk  feels  cool  to 
wear  when  dry,  and  when  wet  it  is  very  cold  in  contact  with 
the  skin.  Good  silk  has  the  striking  physical  property  of 
high  luster.  This  is  noticeable  after  the  silk  gum  has  been 
removed  by  scouring.  Extreme  weighting  of  silk  destroys 
this  beauty.  Silk  also  has  the  property  termed  "  scroop." 
This  is  the  rustle  of  silken  fabrics  that  one  sometimes  hears 
or  the  crackling  sound  when  it  is  squeezed  or  pressed. 

Linen  is  often  called  the  fiber  of  the  aristocracy ;  it  is  costly 
because  of  the  labor  involved  in  its  manufacture.  It  is  a 
very  strong  fiber  and  when  carefully  handled  in  manufacture 
will  last  years,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  remains  of  our  great 
grandmothers'  household  linens.  It  absorbs  moisture  very 
readily,  so  we  know  that  linen  dish  towels  are  better  than 
cotton,  and  it  also  dries  very  rapidly.  Linen,  because  of  its 
vegetable  composition,  when  burned  smells  like  wood  and 
leaves  a  slight  ashy  residue.  It  burns  almost  as  quickly  as 
cotton,  and  with  a  bright,  flashy  flame.  Linen  feels  silky, 
stiff,  slippery,  and  rigid,  and  is  cool  and  heavy  in  weight. 
It  is  more  unyielding  and  less  elastic  than  any  of  the  other 
leading  fibers.  Linen  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than 
cotton.  It  is  the  coolest  fabric  to  wear  when  dry,  and  when 
wet,  in  contact  with  the  skin,  is  remarkably  cool.  During  the 
bleaching  process  linen  may  lose  20  per  cent  of  its  weight. 
Linen  is  the  most  cleanly  fiber,  because  it  is  longer  and  does 
not  fuzz  up  as  cotton  in  the  spinning.  For  this  reason  the 
woven  surface  is  smooth  and  stays  clean  longer.  It  does  not 
retain  the  dye  as  easily  as  cotton,  due  to  its  structure.  Flax 
fiber  is  stronger  than  cotton,  unless  over-retted,  when  it  is 
brittle  and  weak.  The  hygroscopic  power  of  linen  is  about 
the  same  as  in  cotton. 


194  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

METHODS  OF  ADULTERATION  OF    OUR  COMMON 
MATERIALS  AND  WAYS   OF  TESTING  THEM 

The  indifference  of  the  buying  public  has  made  it  possible 
for  manufacturers  to  adulterate  the  necessary  materials  of 
everyday  use  and  so  increase  the  cost  of  everyday  living. 
Our  food  and  drug  materials  are  now  labeled  and  legislative 
measures  control  this  labeling.  There  is  corresponding  need 
to-day  of  a  pure  textile  law  that  will  make  necessary  the 
branding  of  goods  in  such  a  way  that  fabrics  will  not  be  sold 
as  all  linen  when  they  are  half  cotton,  or  as  all  silk  when  half 
weighting.  Substitution  of  cheaper  for  more  expensive 
fibers  will  probably  go  on  and  a  certain  kind  is  legitimate 
if  the  goods  are  so  labeled  that  the  purchaser  knows  what 
he  is  buying.  There  are  many  simple  tests  by  which  it  is 
possible  to  estimate  the  composition  of  materials,  and  these 
should  be  known  to  every  girl,  in  order  that  she  may  protect 
herself  until  legislative  measures  bring  some  force  to  bear 
upon  the  proper  labeling  of  fabrics.  Many  interesting  and 
surprising  experiments  can  be  made  in  the  chemical  laboratory 
that  will  make  one  more  thoughtful  in  the  purchasing  of 
materials.  There  are  many  ways  in  which  fabrics  are  adul- 
terated. It  is  necessary  to  know  something  about  the 
possibilities  before  applying  tests  for  identifications.  Some 
of  the  methods  of  adulteration  have  been  indicated  in  the 
study  of  processes  of  manufacture. 

Adulterations  by  weighting.  —  This  means  the  substitu- 
tion of  something  for  the  actual  material.  In  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  one  method  of  weighting  is  the  adding  of  much 
sizing.  This  can  be  removed,  but  the  material  after  wash- 
ing will  be  found  to  be  a  much  more  open  mesh  or  weave. 
Many  kinds  of  gums,  glues,  clays,  and  starches  are  used 
for  this  filling.  Light  silk  is  weighted  with  sugar  and  the 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   195 

darker  ones  with  metallic  salts  and  dyes.  This  is  because 
of  the  great  hygroscopic  property  of  silk,  which  enables 
it  to  absorb  a  great  deal  of  moisture  without  apparently 
changing  its  quality.  Dye  and  salts  are  cheaper  than  pure 
silk,  so  loading  is  practiced.  Silk  loses  30  per  cent  of  its 
weight  in  the  gum,  and  this  is  often  replaced  together  with 
as  much  as  200  per  cent  of  other  matter.  We  rarely  find 
to-day  the  pure  silk  fabric  that  our  grandmothers  used,  a 
fabric  which  was  expensive  but  which  lasted  even  when  stored 
away  for  years.  This  is  because  the  public  demands  cheap 
silk  and  the  manufacturer  cannot  produce  it  without  adul- 
teration when  the  cost  of  the  raw  fiber  is  so  high. 

Adulteration  by  combination  with  other  fibers.  —  This  is 
a  common  practice,  and  one  often  buys  "all  wool"  which  is 
half  cotton,  or  "  pure  linen  "  which  is  a  union  of  cotton  and 
linen,  or  "  pure  silk  "  adulterated  with  artificial  silk  or  mer- 
cerized cotton. 

Adulterations  due  to  use  of  waste  or  made  over  material.  — 
In  studying  the  process  of  wool  manufacture  we  learned  that 
there  is  not  enough  wool  produced  to  keep  everybody  supplied, 
and  a  garment  of  all  new  wool  would  be  very  expensive. 
The  practice  of  using  shoddy,  mungo,  or  extracts  is  legitimate, 
but  one  should  not  pay  the  price  of  a  new  wool  or  half  new 
wool  fabric  when  the  composition  is  largely  shoddy.  There 
should  be  some  legislation  which  would  make  labeling  a  re- 
quirement so  that  the  purchaser  may  know  what  per  cent 
of  new  wool  she  is  really  buying.  Silks  are  sometimes  sold 
as  reeled  silks  when  the  spun  silk  from  the  waste  cocoons  has 
been  used  as  filling  or  woof. 

Adulterations  due  to  methods  of  finishing.  — In  our  study 
of  cotton  and  linen  manufacture  we  learned  the  uses  of 
calendering.  This  pressing  is  sometimes  used  deceptively 
to  give  luster  to  the  surface.  Ordinary  cotton  is  made  to 


196          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

appear  silky  or  mercerized.  Linen  is  beetled  in  finishing  to 
make  the  fibers  stand  out.  Cotton  so  treated  is  a  good  imi- 
tation of  linen. 

Tests  for  sizing.  —  Such  adulteration  is  quite  apparent  and  with 
a  little  practice  easy  of  indentification.  It  renders  the  material 
smooth  but  rather  harsh.  It  conceals  defects  in  the  cloth  which 
can,  however,  be  detected  by  touch  or,  if  the  material  is  thin,  can 
be  seen  by  holding  it  against  the  light.  Sizing  may  be  removed  by 
boiling  in  a  covered  kettle.  The  required  time  will  depend  on  the 
quantity  of  dressing.  Sometimes  the  material  is  boiled  in  5  per 
cent  solution  of  oxalic  acid  to  change  the  starch  to  dextrin  or  sugar 
to  dissolve  it.  Cotton  that  has  been  treated  with  olive  oil  appears 
very  opaque  and  linen  translucent,  but  if  much  sizing  is  present  this 
test  for  linen  and  cotton  is  not  as  successful.  Crush  the  material 
and  rub  together.  Pick  at  the  surface  with  your  finger  nail  and 
the  starch  or  sizing  will  easily  come  off.  Wet  and  hang  in  the  air 
Notice  the  effect  on  the  gloss  after  wetting. 

Chemical  tests  for  identification  of  fibers.  —  Acids  and 
alkalies  affect  vegetable  and  animal  fibers  in  different  ways, 
so  by  testing  woven  materials  chemically  it  is  possible  to 
discover  their  composition.  A  fringed  sample  serves  better 
than  a  closely  cut  piece. 

1.  Place  pieces  of  white  cotton  and  woolen  materials  in  dishes. 
Cover  with  a  50  per  cent  solution  of  nitric  acid.      The  wool  fibers 
turn  yellow  in  color.     If  ammonia  is  added,  the  yellow  wool  will 
turn  to  orange  color. 

2.  Place  two  pieces  of  wool  and  two  of  cotton  fabrics  in  separate 
beakers.     Cover  one  of  each  with  sulphuric  acid  and  the  other  two 
with  10  per  cent  caustic  soda.    Allow  them  to  remain  fifteen  minutes, 
pour  off  liquid,  wash  carefully,  and  examine.     The  sulphuric  acid 
dissolves  the  cotton  and  the  wool  becomes  jellylike,  while  in  the 
alkali  or  caustic  soda  the  wool  is  dissolved  and  the  cotton  remains 
unchanged. 

3.  Boil  cotton  and  wool  samples  in  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  caustic 
potash,  also  samples  of  cotton  and  silk,  for  fifteen  minutes.     The 
animal  fibers  of  wool  and  silk  will  be  dissolved  and  the  cotton  will 
remain  the  same. 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   197 

4.  Moisten  samples  of  wool  and  cotton  with  Millon's  reagent. 
Place  in  porcelain  dishes  and  he.at  gently.     The  animal  fibers  be- 
come red,  while  the  vegetable  fibers  remain  unchanged. 

These  tests  also  show  that  in  laundering  of  fabrics  one  should 
know  the  composition  of  soaps  and  washing  powders  and  the  effects 
they  will  have  on  materials. 

5.  Cotton  and  linen  are  woven  together  and  sold  as  union  mate- 
rial.    Place  a  fringed  sample  of  this  union  material  in  a  porcelain 
dish.     Heat  gently  in  a  50  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  potash  for 
two   minutes.      Remove  with  glass  rod  and   dry  between  filter 
papers.     The  linen  will  be  dark  yellow  in  color  and  the  cotton  white 
or  light  yellow. 

6.  Treat  union  material  in  the  same  way  for  two  minutes  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid.     Remove  with  glass  rod.     The  linen 
fibers  remain  and  the  cotton  dissolves.     Linen  is  not  as  susceptible 
to  acid  as  cotton. 

This  is  not  a  good  test  for  very  delicate  materials,  but  rather  for 
heavy  weaves  as  toweling  and  damask. 

7.  Treat  silk  with  40  per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  for 
two  minutes.     The  silk  is  dissolved.     Also  with  30  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  hydrochloric  acid  for  about  ten  minutes.     It  will  be  found 
that  very  dilute  acids  will  be  absorbed  by  silk  with  the  effect  of  add- 
ing luster.     This  will  weaken  the  fibers.     Common  salt  weakens 
silk,  especially  when  it  is  weighted.    A  silk  dress  made  of  adulterated 
material  is  apt  to  show  holes  if  spotted  with  salt  water.     The 
cracking  and  discoloring  of  silk  in  presence  of  salt  is  due  to  the  effect 
of  the  salt  on  the  weighting. 

9.  Artificial  silk  when  boiled  in  4  per  cent  solution  of  caustic 
potash  will  turn  the  solution  yellow,  while  pure  silk  leaves  a  colorless 
solution.  Millon's  reagent  will  turn  silk  red,  while  artificial  silk 
remains  unchanged. 

Other  tests  for  fiber.  —  An  examination  of  the  raveled 
warp  and  woof  of  materials  will  often  reveal  a  great  deal. 
Cotton  fibers  are  short  and  the  ends  appear  fuzzy.  Wool 
is  kinky  and  stiff.  Silk  fibers  are  long,  straight,  and  lustrous 
if  reeled  silk ;  if  spun,  the  fibers  are  short  and  break  easily. 
Linen  is  strong  and  long  and  ends  uneven  when  broken,  but 
more  pointed  than  cotton.  Unwrap  the  warp  or  woof 


198          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

threads  of  wool  and  see  if  the  core  is  of  cotton.  Wool  feels 
springy  and  soft. 

Microscopical  tests.  —  The  use  of  the  microscope  or 
magnifying  glass  will  reveal  many  things.  The  fibers  of 
materials  when  unraveled  and  examined  are  easily  identified. 
Shoddy  can  sometimes  be  discovered  in  this  way  because  of 
color  of  the  threads.  Old  woolen  rags  of  one  color  may  be 
made  up  of  various  colored  wools.  If  the  yarn  is  found  to 
contain  individual  fibers  of  many  colors,  it  is  generally  due 
to  presence  of  shoddy.  The  magnifying  glass  will  also  reveal 
whether  "  pure  silk  "  so  called  is  silk  or  simply  mercerized 
cotton  fiber.  The  microscopic  is  the  only  sure  test  for  dis- 
tinguishing cotton  and  linen  fibers. 

Burning  tests.  —  1 .  Unravel  the  fibers  of  both  warp  and  woof. 
Burn  with  taper.  The  animal  threads  burn  slowly,  char,  and 
give  off  odor  of  burned  feathers.  Silk  leaves  more  ash  when 
weighted.  The  vegetable  fibers  burn  quickly  with  a  flame. 

2.  Heat  cotton  and  wool  samples  separately  in  dry  test 
tubes.     Notice  the  condensation  on  side  of  tube.     The  fumes 
from  wool  when  tested  with  moist  red  litmus  paper  will  turn 
it  blue,  showing  presence  of  ammonia.    Filter  paper  wet  with 
lead  acetate  solution  and  held  in  fumes  will  turn  black,  show- 
ing presence  of  sulphur.     The  residue  in  tube  is  carbon  and 
possibly  weighting.     Cotton  fumes  turn  blue  litmus  paper 
red,  showing  acid  present. 

3.  Weighted  silks  burn  more  slowly  than  pure  silk.     If 
very  heavily  weighted,  the  flame  carries  poorly  and  the  form 
of  the  silk  will  remain.     If  it  burns  to  an  ash,  it  is  not  heavily 
weighted.     Burn  both  warp  and  woof. 

Test  for  shrinkage.  —  Measure  width  and  length  of  your 
sample.  Wash  it  in  hot  water  and  soap.  Dry  and  measure 
again.  Is  it  shorter  and  narrower?  In  making  up  cotton 
or  woolen  garments  which  are  to  be  washed,  allowance 


COMPARISON  OF  WOOL,  COTTON,  SILK,  AND  FLAX   199 

should  be  made  for  shrinkage.  Calculate  how  much  the 
tested  material  would  shrink  in  a  yard. 

Test  for  fading.  —  Mount  a  piece  of  the  cloth  to  be  tested  on 
a  board.  Cover  one  half  of  it  with  cardboard  or  heavy  paper 
and  expose  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  several  days.  Remove 
cardboard  and  notice  change.  Expose  covered  piece  also  in 
bright  diffused  light  as  under  ordinary  conditions  of  serv- 
ice. 

Test  for  strength.  —  Place  the  two  thumbs  together  and 
press  down  on  the  cloth  held  tightly  in  the  hands.  Try  to 
break  first  the  warp  and  then  the  woof  threads  in  this  way. 
Sometimes  there  are  imperfections  in  the  weave  or  one  set 
of  threads  is  better  than  the  other. 

The  laws  of  our  country  at  present  offer  no  protection  to 
the  purchaser  of  materials.  Woman  gts  the  principal  con- 
sumer should  have  a  knowledge  of  adulterations  in  order  to 
protect  herself  and  family,  for  the  question  of  the  honesty 
of  fabrics  is  one  that  must  be  met  almost  daily.  Many 
adulterations  are  so  carefully  concealed  that  the  use  of 
microscope  and  chemical  tests  is  required  to  disclose  them. 
The  purchaser  for  the  everyday  household  who  has  no 
such  facilities  can  do  much  to  protect  herself  by  the  use 
of  simple  tests  such  as  have  been  described  above. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  differences  in  the  microscopical  appearances  of 
wool  and  cotton  ?     Of  flax  and  silk  ? 

2.  What  are  the  chemical  compositions  of  the  four  leading  fibers  ? 

3.  Describe  the  principal  characteristics  and  properties  of  wool ; 
of  cotton  ;  of  flax ;  of  silk. 

4.  How  can  materials  be  adulterated  by  weighting ;  by  methods 
of  finishing  ;  by  combination  with  other  fibers  ? 

5.  Describe  two  chemical  tests  for  identification  of  wool  fibers ; 
for  cotton. 


SEWING  AND   GARMENT  MAKING 

CHAPTER   XIII 
UNDERGARMENTS 

Hand  vs.  Machine  Work.  —  With  the  knowledge  of  the 
plain  stitches  gained  in  the  elementary  school,  it  is  possible 
for  the  high  school  girl  to  begin  the  making  of  undergarments. 
These  may  be  made  by  hand,  by  machine,  or  by  a  com- 
bination of  both  processes.  There  is  an  indefinable  charm 
about  handmade  lingerie,  but  very  dainty  and  beautiful 
garments  can  also  be  made  by  machine.  Some  of  the  old- 
time  drudgery  of  hand  sewing  disappeared  with  the  intro- 
duction of  the  sewing  machine,  but  there  are  many  things 
that  affect  the  general  appearance  and  finish  of  the  garment 
which  the  machine  cannot  do.  It  is  useful  to  know  well 
both  methods.  Very  often  it  is  possible  to  use  the  machine 
for  the  long  seams  of  nightgowns,  chemise,  or  drawers,  and 
have  the  trimming  and  finishing  done  by  hand.  Saving  of 
time  is  a  great  factor  and  should  receive  consideration  in  the 
planning  of  garments.  It  is  wise  to  learn  early  to  exercise 
care  in  handling  materials  during  the  construction  of  gar- 
ments. A  dainty,  light  touch,  care  in  holding  and  folding, 
affect  the  dainty  appearance,  as  well  as  the  neatness  of  the 
sewing  and  finishing. 

Undergarments  made  at  home  are  apt  to  be  more  durable 
than  ready-made  garments.  The  materials  are  more  care- 
fully chosen,  and  one  garment  will  often  outwear  two  bought 

200 


UNDERGARMENTS 


201 


ready-made.  The  homemade  garments  are  apt  to  be  better 
finished.  A  girl  who  learns  to  make  her  own  underwear  will 
have  better  looking  garments  as  well  as  more  durable  ones, 
and  will  be  able  to  save  about  half  the  cost.  In  making  or 
buying  underwear  one  must  consider  the  laundering  and  wear- 
ing qualities.  Muslin  requires  washing  and  ironing  and 
should  be  so  made  up  that  the  raw  edges  are  carefully 
concealed  and  the  stitches  by  hand  or  machine  small  enough 
to  stand  the  strain  and  pull  of  the  wringer  and  washboard. 
Cheap  machine-made  goods  usually  have  very  coarse  stitch- 
ing. Lingerie  which  is  trimmed  elaborately  with  ruffles  and 
Valenciennes  lace  is  twice  as  expensive  to  launder  as  a  plain 
flat  trimming  of  French  embroidery,  feather  stitching,  or 
simple  linen  lace. 
It  costs  in  the  time 
and  energy  which 
must  be  expended 
—  and  that  time 
and  energy  often 
represent  money 
wasted  that  might 
be  spent  to  better 
advantage.  Flat- 
trimmed  underwear 
is  easily  ironed  and 
stands  the  strain  of 
washing  better  than 
lace  and  ruffles  (see 
Fig.  90).  Underwear  of  cotton  crepe  is  pretty,  and  econom- 
ical when  laundering  is  a  problem,  as  it  does  not  require  iron- 
ing. It  can  be  dried  in  the  air  and  sunshine  and  stretched 
and  folded  ready  for  wear. 

The   ethics  of  purchase  of  underwear.  —  In  purchasing 


Courtesy  of  J.  McCutcheon  &  Co. 
FIG.  90.  —  French  nightgown. 


202 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


underwear  ready-made,  every  thoughtful  purchaser  is  qon- 
f rented  by  an  ethical  question.  Under  what  conditions  of 
labor  were  the  goods  manufactured?  Many  garments  are 
made  under  such  insanitary  conditions  that  ready-made  arti- 
cles should  always  be  laundered  before  they  are  worn.  The 
Consumers'  League  is  trying  to  raise  standards  in  relation 
to  the  sanitation  of  workrooms  and  shops  in  which  clothing 
is  made,  and  to  improve  the  wages,  working  hours,  and 
conditions  of  workers  in  the  manufacture  of  women's  white 
underwear.  The  League  permits  the  use  of  its  label  (see 
Fig.  91)  by  manufacturers  of  women's  white  underwear  who 
give  no  work  outside  of  their  factories,  employ  no  children 


CONSUMERS'    LEAGUE    LABEL 


QO 
W 

cn 


UNION  LABEL 


FIG.  91.  —  Consumers'  League  label  and  Union  label. 

under  sixteen  years  of  age,  never  exact  overtime,  and  obey 
the  state  labor  laws.  Seventy  firms  in  the  United  States 
are  using  the  Consumers'  League  label.  The  labels  are 
placed  on  all  garments  made  in  factories  of  firms  which 
have  agreed  to  fulfill  the  above  requirements.  Have  you  in 
buying  underwear  asked  for  goods  bearing  the  Consumers' 
League  label?  Many  garments  are  made  in  tenements 
where  the  surroundings  are  most  unhealthy,  and  the  labor 
of  women  and  little  children  after  school  hours  has  been 
put  into  them.  Even  babies  of  four  are  set  to  work  re- 
moving the  basting  threads.  The  "operators"  work  an 
unlimited  number  of  hours  and  receive  very  little  pay. 


UNDERGARMENTS  203 

The  prices  paid  under  such  conditions  for  making  garments 
by  machine  are  about  75  cents  a  dozen  for  nightgowns, 
22  cents  a  dozen  for  corset  covers,  98  cents  a  dozen  for  silk 
waists,  and  for  other  garments  in  proportion.  The  pressure 
of  work  is  so  great  in  tenement  houses  where  this  labor  is 
done  that  there  is  little  time  for  preparation  of  food  or  care 
of  the  home.  Do  you  wonder  that  tuberculosis  and  other 
diseases  thrive  under  such  conditions  and  are  transmitted 
in  garments?  To-day  in  New  York  City  over  thirteen 
thousand  tenements  are  licensed  by  the  bureau  of  factory 
inspection  of  the  State  Department  of  Labor.  In  these  build- 
ings work  can  be  done  for  manufacturers  on  which  the 
whole  family  labors  without  reference  to  factory  laws  or 
age.  The  labor  law  in  New  York  State  prevents  any  child 
under  fourteen  from  being  employed  in  factories.  The  law 
does  not  apply  to  these  tenement  sweatshops. 

In  buying  ready-made  undergarments  one  should  also 
consider  the  cut.  Do  they  permit  of  freedom  in  the  neces- 
sary bodily  movements  ?  Is  the  material  durable  and  firm 
looking?  Muslin  will  wear  better  than  nainsook.  It  will 
not  pay  to  buy  cheap,  flimsy  lace.  Whether  one  should  buy 
or  make  undergarments  will  depend  on  how  much  leisure 
time  one  has  or  on  how  well  one  organizes  the  use  of  time. 

In  planning  to  make  undergarments  one  should  first 
decide  how  much  time  there  is  at  disposal  for  construction. 
Can  one  afford  to  put  dainty  hand  sewing  on  everyday 
garments,  and  will  handwork  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of 
constant  use  ?  The  plain  stitches  learned  in  the  elementary 
school  will  all  be  of  use  in  construction,  and  the  decorative 
stitches  described  under  embroidery  are  of  value  for  orna- 
mentation. Machine  sewing  will  not  be  found  difficult  if 
the  machine  is  studied  carefully  and  some  time  is  spent  in 
practice  until  neat,  even  stitching  is  obtained. 


204 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


The  sewing  machine  and  its  use. — Time  will  be  saved  if, 
before  beginning  to  use  the  machine,  the  book  of  directions 
is -carefully  studied.  This  can  be  done  as  a  home  study 
lesson.  The  mechanism  should  be  understood.  The  sewing 
machine  was  invented  in  1846  by  Elias  Howe  of  Cambridge, 


Courtesy  of  Wttcox  and  Gibbs  Sewing  Machine,  Co. 
FIG.  92.  —  Single  thread  machine. 

Mass.,  and  improvements  on  his  model  soon  followed. 
The  two  principal  kinds  for  ordinary  use  are  the  single  thread 
or  chain  stitch  machine  and  the  double  thread  or  lock  stitch 
type.  It  is  advisable  to  learn  to  use  both.  The  single  thread 
rips  easily,  so  the  ends  should  be  carefully  fastened.  In 
making  hems,  tucks,  or  flat  fells  on  chain  stitch  machine  it 
is  necessary  to  stitch  always  on  the  right  side,  as  the 
under  side  shows  the  chain.  This  necessitates  very  care- 


UNDERGARMENTS 


205 


ful  straight  basting..  The  double  thread  machine  can  be 
used  effectively  on  either  right  or  wrong  side,  and  does 
not  rip  easily  (see  Figs.  92  and  93). 


Courtesy  of  New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co. 
FIG.  93.  — Double  thread  machine. 


The  attachments  for  gathering,  hemming,  and  tucking 
all  save  time,  but  plain  stitching  should  be  learned  first ;  and 
many  prefer  to  do  the  preparatory  processes  of  gathering, 
etc.,  by  hand. 


SOME  THINGS  TO  NOTICE   BEFORE  BEGINNING 
PRACTICE 

1.  Look  at  the  parts  of  the  machine  below  the  table. 
Study  the  relation  of  the  treadle  to  the  connecting  rod,  and 
to  the  wheel.     What  connects   the  wheel  below  the  table 
with  the  wheel  above? 

2.  Above  the  table,  look  for  the  spool  holder,  the  shaft, 
the  needle  bar,  the  presser  foot,  the  needle,  the  needle  plate, 
the  feed. 

3.  The  single  thread  machine  has  an  automatic  tension 
that  should  not  be  touched ;    the  double  thread  has  a  ten- 
sion screw  which  regulates  the  speed  with  which  the  thread 
is  drawn  from  spool  and  bobbin.     Find  this. 


206  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

4.  The  double  thread  machine  has  a  shuttle  that  fits  in 
a  shuttle  carrier  under  the  needle  plate.     Find  it  and  remove 
the  bobbin  from  the   shuttle.     This  machine  also  has  a 
bobbin  winder.     Where  is  it  located  ? 

5.  Notice  how  the  length  of   stitch   is   controlled.      In 
some  double  thread  machines  a  screw  in  the  front  of  the 
arm  must  be  turned  to  the  right  to  increase  the  length,  and 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  shorten.     In  others  a  screw  may 
be  found  in  a  groove  at  the  base  of  the  arm.     This  may  be 
moved  forward  or  backward  according  to  the  numbers  in 
the  table.     In  the  single  thread  machine  notice  the  lever 
for  controlling  the  number  of  stitches  to  the  inch,  and  the 
direction  for  size  of  thread  to  be  used. 

A  FEW  THINGS  TO  PRACTICE 

1.  Learn  to  tread  evenly.     This  can  be  practiced  before 
threading. 

2.  Follow  book  of  directions  for  threading. 

3.  Learn  to  wind  the  bobbin  if  you  have  a  double  thread 
machine. 

4.  Practice  threading  the  shuttle. 

5.  Practice  turning  the   wheel   and   holding  the   upper 
thread  so  as  to  draw  the  under  thread  up  through  the  needle 
plate  preparatory  to  stitching  on  the  double  thread  machine. 

6.  When  necessary,  practice  change  of  stitch  and  use  of 
tension. 

7.  Practice  stitching  on  brown  paper  without  thread. 

8.  Practice  straight  stitching  on  a  piece  of  ticking  or  other 
striped  material  for  a  guide. 

9.  Practice  straight  stitching  on  a  scrap  of  plain  cloth, 
and  try  to  turn  good  square  corners.     That  is  done  by  not 
raising  the  presser  foot  until  the  needle  is  down  in  the  corner 
desired,  then,  with  needle  in  cloth,  raise  foot  and  turn  ma- 


UNDERGARMENTS  207 

terial.  Practice  parallel  rows  of  stitching.  Do  not  stitch 
with  pressure  foot  down  without  cloth  under  the  feed;  it 
spoils  the  machine. 

A  FEW  THINGS  TO  BE  CAREFUL  ABOUT 

1.  Be  sure  that  your  machine  is  clean  and  well  oiled,     ii 
it  becomes  sticky  or  if  the  machine  is  to  stand  unused  for  a 
few  months,  oil  with  kerosene.     This  will  cleanse.     Work  it 
so  that  the  oil  will  travel,  and  wipe  off  carefully.    After  cleans- 
ing, oil  with  machine  oil.     Use  only  a  good  quality.     Keep  a 
cloth  in  the  machine  drawer  and  always  wipe  the  machine 
carefully  before  using. 

2.  The  thread,  needle,  length  of  stitch,  must  all  be  in 
keeping  with  the  material.     For  ordinary  white  work,  No. 
80  cotton  is  about  right.     Consult  book  or  table  of  machine 
for  size  of  needle  to  be  used  and  suitable  thread. 

3.  //  the  machine  does  not  work  well  and  is  in  repair,  it  is 
generally  because  it  is  not  threaded  properly  above  or  below 
the  table,  or  perhaps  the  needle  is  blunt  or  has  been  incor- 
rectly set.     Examine  these  parts. 

4.  In  beginning  to  sew  on  the  single  thread  machine, 
throw  the  thread  between  the  prongs  of  the  presser  foot 
until  started.     Keep  the  cap  covering  the  looper  closed.     In 
the  double  thread  be  sure  the  under  thread  is  up  before 
starting. 

5.  Learn  to  shorten  the  belt  when  necessary.     If  it  is 
loose,  the  machine  works  badly. 

6.  When  stitching  bias  and  straight  edges  together,  the 
bias  should  be  placed  down  towards  the  feed,  as  it  is  more 
easily  stretched  and  is  thus  held  in  as  the  feed  moves  for- 
ward.    The  presser  foot  holds  the  straight  edge  tight. 

7.  The  table  at  the  left  hand  is  the  place  for  the  bulk  of 
the  work.     It  should  not  be  crowded  to  the  right  of  the  pres- 


208 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


ser  foot,  for  it  is  then  impossible  to  guide  the  work  easily  or 
stitch  well. 

Selection  of  materials  for  underwear.  —  There  are  a 
number  of  cotton  materials  suitable  for  underwear.  In 
selecting,  one  should  consider  the  use  of  the  garment.  Con- 
sult the  list  of  common  materials  under  "  cotton."  One  can 


1       All    linen    Cluny 
insertion. 


All    linen    Cluny 
edge. 


AH    linen    Cluny 
insertion. 


All    linen    Cluny 
edge. 


Courtesy  of  McCutcheon's. 
FIG.  94.  —  Laces. 


spend  a  great  deal  of  money  on  fine  nainsook  with  lace  and 
embroidery  for  trimming;  but  if  one  must  economize,  it  is 
possible  to  produce  very  inexpensive  and  pretty  underwear 
with  a  little  thought  in  the  selection  of  material  and  the 
decoration.  Instead  of  lace  or  embroidery,  garments  may 


UNDERGA  RMEN  TS 


209 


be  ornamented  with  simple  stitches.     Long  cloth  or  a  light 
muslin  will  give  most  satisfactory  wear  if  the  garment  must 


5       All    linen    Cluny 
insertion. 


6       All    linen    Cluny 
edge. 


7       All  linen  torchon 
insertion. 


All  linen  torchon 
edge. 


Real    Irish    cro- 
chet insertion. 


10     Real     Irish    cro- 
chet edge. 


11  All  linen  hand- 
made Cluny 
lace. 


Courtesy  of  McCulcheon's. 
FIG.  94a.  —  Laces. 


have  hard  usage.     It  pays  to  buy  long  cloth  by  the  piece  of 
twelve  yards.     For  ordinary  wear,  if  one  does  not  care  for 


210          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

a  very  heavy  garment,  Berkeley  cambric  or  Alpine  Rose 
muslin  are  satisfactory.  Nainsook  is  finer  and  softer  in 
quality,  but  not  quite  as  durable.  Dimity,  lawn,  and  crepe 
are  also  used. 

For  durability  linen  laces  are  the  most  satisfactory  (see 
Figs.  94  and  94a).  Torchon  and  Cluny  come  in  varying 
widths  and  qualities,  and  the  machine-made  linen  laces  in 
imitation  of  handmade  Cluny  and  torchon  are  very  good. 
Half  inch  edges  and  insertions  can  be  obtained  for  six  or  seven 
cents  a  yard.  Valenciennes  lace  is  also  used  on  underwear  and 
is  pretty,  but  not  as  durable  as  linen.  The  "  German  Val  "  is 
the  best.  There  are  other  cotton  laces,  but  they  are  generally 
not  as  pleasing  in  appearance  nor  of  satisfactory  wearing 
quality.  Linen  and  cotton  laces  are  often  combined  very 
effectively  on  underwear.  Hamburg,  Swiss,  or  batiste  em- 
broidery, edging,  and  insertion  are  used  alone  or  in  combina- 
tion with  lace  on  underwear.  They  are  generally  more  ex- 
pensive than  lace,  but  come  in  many  qualities. 

Good  taste  is  shown  in  the  selection  of  materials  for 
underwear  as  well  as  for  outside  garments.  One  should 
know  what  one  can  afford  to  spend,  and  then  in  selecting 
should  consider  the  circumstances  under  which  the  garments 
will  be  worn  and  how  they  will  be  laundered.  Flat,  simple 
garments  are  easily  laundered  at  home ;  and  if  sent  to  a  laun- 
dry, the  charge  is  less  than  for  more  elaborate  garments. 
Expensive  garments  beyond  one's  means  are  not  good  taste. 

If  you  are  not  very  experienced  in  shopping,  it  would  be 
wise  to  bring  samples  of  materials  to  be  used  to  class. for 
criticism,  before  purchasing. 

The  decoration  of  underwear.  —  There  are  many  simple 
and  beautiful  ways  of  decorating  underwear.  A  dainty  ga'r- 
ment  which  warrants  the  expenditure  of  time  can  be  put 
together  with  entre  deux,  or  seam  veining  as  it  is  sometimes 


UNDERGARMENTS  211 

called,  instead  of  the  French  or  felled  seams.  Entre  deux 
can  be  bought  with  swiss  or  nainsook  background.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  it  match  the  garment  in  quality. 

Methods  of  use  of  entre  deux,  or  seam  beading.  —  In  seams 
of  garments.  —  Cut  the  muslin  at  each  side  of  the  entre  deux 
the  width  for  two  seams.  Sew  as  for  French  seam  with 
first  sewing  on  right  side  of  garment  and  second  on  wrong. 
This  can  be  done  by  hand  or  machine.  The  second  sewing 
should  come  close  to  the  beading  so  as  to  show  none  of  the 
muslin  on  which  the  beading  is  embroidered.  Ruffles  can 
be  attached  to  one  edge  of  the  beading  or  entre  deux  in  the 
same  way,  but  should  be  carefully  basted  before  sewed. 

Other  uses.  —  Entre  deux  or  beading  is  also  used  in  joining 
lace  by  hand.  Cut  the  muslin  close  to  beading  and  over- 
hand alternate  rows  of  lace  and  beading.  In  overhanding 
hold  the  two  edges  together  between  the  thumb  and  first 
finger.  This  makes  a  dainty  trimming  for  sleeve,  cuffs, 
collars,  or  yokes. 

Sewing  between  rolled  edges.  —  Cut  the  muslin  from  both 
sides  of  the  beading  or  entre  deux  if  both  edges  are  to  be 
joined  as  in  placing  an  insert  in  a  ruffle.  Hold  the  wrong 
side  of  the  cloth  toward  you.  Roll  the  cloth,  beginning  at 
the  right  of  the  edge  to  be  joined  to  the  beading.  This  edge 
should  have  all  ravelings  cut  away.  Roll  tightly  towards 
the  worker  between  thumb  and  forefinger  of  left  hand.  A 
tiny,  neat  roll  requires  practice.  Keep  about  two  inches 
rolled  ahead  of  the  sewing.  In  joining  the  rolled  edge  to 
the  edge  of  the  beading  with  the  hemming  stitch,  pass  the 
needle  with  each  stitch  under  the  roll.  This  keeps  it  in  place 
so  no  raveled  edges  will  escape.  This  is  called  whipping, 
and  is  a  hand-sewing  process. 

The  introduction  of  lace  as  decoration.  —  Lace  insertion 
can  be  used  as  suggested  above  for  embroidery,  and  whipped 


212          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

to  rolled  edges.  When  a  lace  edging  is  to  be  attached  to  a 
rolled  edge,  it  is  sewed  in  the  same  way,  but  the  lace  is  held 
a  little  full,  or,  if  more  fullness  is  desired,  the  top  edge  of  the 
lace  is  overcasted  and  drawn  up.  This  is  better  for  full 
ruffles,  as  it  does  not  weaken  or  leave  an  edge  at  the  top. 
Lace  edging  can  be  attached  to  any  hemmed  edge  or  ruffle 
by  hand.  If  fullness  is  desired,  the  lace  should  be  held  a 
little  full  towards  the  worker  in  sewing  or  the  method  sug- 
gested above  may  be  used. 

Lace  may  also  be  used  in  designs  for  decoration  of  flat 
surfaces.  The  lace  is  then  basted  in  the  shape  of  the  design 
to  the  flat  surface  and  sewed  at  both  edges  on  the  right  side 
by  hand  or  machine.  The  edge  of  the  lace  should  be  oyer- 
casted  where  round  corners  are  turned.  If  the  lace  is  sewed 
by  hand,  a  running  and  backstitch  is  used  or  sometimes  a 
hemming  stitch.  Turn  to  the  wrong  side.  Cut  out  some 
of  the  muslin  with  care  not  to  cut  lace,  leaving  enough  to 
turn  back  at  both  edges.  This  can  be  rolled  and  hemmed 
by  hand  to  the  edge  of  the  lace,  or  the  raveled  edge  rolls 
itself  if  overcasted  to  the  edge  of  the  lace.  In  machine 
work  a  narrow,  neat  hem  may  be  basted  both  sides  and 
stitched. 

Whipping  of  ruffles.  —  In  making  underwear  or  other  fine 
white  work  by  hand,  ruffles  should  first  be  whipped  before 
being  overhanded  to  the  hem,  beading,  or  lace  insertion. 
In  whipping  a  ruffle  the  edge  is  rolled  as  described  above 
towards  the  worker  with  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the 
left  hand.  The  needle  is  pointed  as  for  the  hemming  stitch 
and  the  edge  held  over  the  finger  in  the  same  way,  but  the 
needle  passes  under  the  roll  with  each  stitch  and  is  brought 
out  at  the  edge,  between  roll  and  material.  In  this  way  the 
thread  is  gradually  passed  around  the  roll  in  spiral  fashion. 
After  a  few  inches  of  stitches  have  been  taken,  the  thread 


UNDERGARMENTS  213 

can  be  pulled  and  the  ruffle  drawn  up  to  desired  fullness  for 
the  space  that  it  is  to  cover. 

Tucking.  —  It  is  possible  to  decorate  beautifully  and  inex- 
pensively with  hand  or  machine  made  tucks.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  have  them  of  even  width.  If  made  by  hand,  they 
should  be  marked  with  a  measure  (see  Fig.  95).  A  piece  of 
notched  cardboard  will  be  found 
easier  to  handle  than  a  tape  meas- 
ure. The  machine  tucker  has  a 
guide  for  marking  the  fold  of  the 
tuck  and  the  spaces  between.  In 


calculating  the  amount  of  material  FlG'  95'  ~  Cardboard 
for  tucks,  allow  for  twice  the  width  of  each  tuck  desired. 
In  placing  tucks,  fold  the  first  tuck  and  stitch  ;  then  meas- 
ure from  the  stitching  of  this  tuck  twice  the  width  of  the 
tuck  plus  the  space  between  for  the  fold  of  the  next  tuck. 

Tucks  may  be  arranged  in  groups  and  in  ascending  or 
descending  effects.  The  effect  of  an  odd  number  is  prettier 
than  an  even.  Tucks  may  be  made  with  both  the  warp 
and  the  woof  threads  of  the  cloth,  and  may  be  crossed  in 
checkerboard  fashion.  This  makes  a  very  pretty  decora- 
tion, but  one  must  be  rather  expert  to  tuck  in  this  way. 
Tucking  combined  with  fancy  stitches  such  as  the  feather- 
stitch, lazy  daisy,  or  chain  stitch  is  the  daintiest  way  of 
decorating  clothing  for  children. 

Fancy  stitches  as  decoration  for  white  work  can  be  made 
simply  or  in  elaborate  designs  in  satin  stitch.  (See  em- 
broidery.) Designs  may  be  made  and  transferred,  or  simple 
designs  may  be  purchased.  The  simple  arrangements  of 
featherstitching  and  other  decorative  stitches  can  often  be 
marked  directly  on  the  cloth  with  a  hard  pencil.  Rows  of 
featherstitching  with  French  knots  between  the  stitches  is 
a  pretty  decoration  to  place  between  groups  of  hand  tucks. 


214          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

The  lazy  daisy  stitch  can  also  be  used  in  rows  (see  Figs. 

96  and  97).     Circles  marked  with  a  spool  to  overlap,  and 

featherstitched  on  the  line  make  a  very  effective  decoration. 

Squares  or  ellipses  followed  in  the  same  way  are  also  pretty. 

Featherstitching  can 
be  used  on  finishing 
bands  where  an  ex- 
tra hand  finish  is 
desired.  The  bot- 

tom  of  ruffles  can  be 

finished     inexpen- 

FIG.   96.  -Featherstiching  of  circles  interlaced.    gively    with    feather_ 

stitching.  Make  one  turn  of  material  as  for  a  hem  the  width 
desired.  On  the  right  side  trace  simple  curves  which  should 
not  go  above  the  raw  edge  of  turned  material.  Feather- 
stitch closely  on  this  tracing.  Cut  out  the  turned  material 
on  wrong  side  close  to  the  feather  stitching  (see  Fig.  113). 


FIG.  97.  —  Hem  of  ruffle,  featherstitching  and  lazy  daisy  stitch. 

Scalloping  is  often  used  for  edges  where  a  flat  finish  is 
desired.  It  can  be  marked  by  means  of  a  spool  and  makes 
an  effective  trimming  around  necks  of  chemise,  nightgown, 
and  top  of  corset  cover.  (See  embroidery.) 

Mitering  lace  and  embroidery.  —  In  finishing  corners  it  is 
necessary  to  turn  them  neatly.  A  miter  will  give  the 
smoothest  finish.  Plan  carefully  by  folding  embroidery  to 
get  desired  finished  effect,  then  cut,  allowing  for  a  seam.  On 
the  wrong  side  turn  back  seam  allowance  and  overhand  to- 
gether. When  opened  and  flattened,  the  raw  edges  can  be 


UNDERGARMENTS  215 

hemmed  to  the  cloth  on  both  sides  by  hand.  The  miter 
can  also  be  stitched  by  machine,  but  should  be  basted  care- 
fully in  straight  seam.  Embroidery  is  sometimes  joined  by 
cutting  so  the  pattern  matches  and  the  edges  sewed  with  a 
close  buttonhole  stitch  on  the  wrong  side  of  seam.  When 
lace  is  joined  in  this  way,  the  seam  can  be  straight  or  may 
follow  the  outline  of  the  design  of  the  lace. 

Bias  bands  as  trimming.  —  A  neat  finish  is  obtained  with 
bias  bands  instead  of  the  finishing  braid  which  can  be  pur- 
chased in  plain  or  decorated  patterns.  The  bias  bands  are 
used  to  cover  raw  edges  at  the  top  of  ruffles  on  petticoats  or 
drawers  or  to  finish  neck  or  armhole  where  ruffles  have  been 
used.  The  seam  joining  the  ruffle  to  the  garment  is  on  the 
right  side.  The  bias  band  is  cut  the  desired  width  and 
basted  carefully  on  both  edges  so  as  to  cover  the  raw  edges 
of  the  ruffle.  It  is  stitched  on  the  very  edge.  Bias  bands 
are  easily  cut  if  one  remembers  that  in  folding  the  material 
the  warp  threads  of  the  cloth  should  lie  exactly  on  the  woof. 
The  diagonal  thus  formed  is  the  true  bias  cut,  and  any  width 
can  be  made.  Other  bias  cuts  can  be  made,  but  the  true  bias 
is  the  most  satisfactory  for  turning  round  corners.  Do  not 
forget  that  in  joining  bias  bands  the  seam  must  be  made 
along  the  warp  threads. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  reasons  for  hand  vs.  machine  made  underwear.     What 
ideals  should  regulate  the  kind  of  material  and  decoration  ? 

2.  What  ethical  question  confronts  the  purchaser  of  ready-made 
underwear  ? 

3.  What  are  the  conditions  existing  in  many  factories  and  tene- 
ments where  underwear  is  made  ? 

4.  Try  to  find  out  what  the  Consumer's  League  is  doing  along 
these  lines.     Have  you  joined  the  Consumer's  League  of  your  town  ? 
Is  there  a  "white  list"  of  shops  where  honest  goods  can  be  obtained  ? 


216          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

What  are  you  doing  to  relieve  the  burden  of  the  shop  girls  at 
Christmas  time  ? 

5.  Compare  the  single  and  double  thread  machines.     What 
difficulties  were  experienced  in  practice?     What  things  must  one 
exercise  care  and  judgment  about  in  the  use  of  the  machine  ? 

6.  Give  the  names  of  five  different  materials  used  for  underwear. 
Suggest   various   laces    and    embroideries   for    decoration.     What 
should  regulate  their  use  ?     Bring  to  class  samples  of  materials  and 
laces  for  use.     Mount  on  bulletin  board  with  those  brought  by  class 
members.     Compare  prices,  widths,  and  qualities. 

7.  Explain  the  use  of  entre  deux  or  seam  veining  as  decoration 
for  a  nightgown. 

8.  Explain  three  ways  in  which  lace  may  be  introduced  as  trim- 
ming for  undergarments.     Explain  how  to  whip  a  ruffle  for  a  night- 
gown. 

9.  Explain  how  you  would  trim  a  corset  cover  inexpensively  with 
tucks,  entre  deux,  and  hand  work.     How  much  material  must  be 
allowed  in  calculating  for  three  \"  tucks  ? 

10.  Explain  method  of  mitering  lace  for  a  square  yoke  of  night- 
dress. Explain  the  cutting  of  true  bias  bands.  How  should  they 
be  used  around  armhole  of  corset  cover  for  finish,  and  how  joined  ? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PATTERNS 

EVERY  high  school  girl  should  know  how  to  use  the  com- 
mercial pattern  and  to  alter  it  to  suit  her  needs.  It  is  also 
possible  to  learn  to  draft  patterns  in  a  simple,  free  way. 
Drafting  means  the  making  of  a  pattern  according  to  indi- 
vidual measurements.  Drafting  helps  one  to  adapt  patterns 
to  suit  individual  figures  and  gives  one  a  better  understand- 
ing of  commercial  patterns.  Modeling  in  crinoline,  paper, 
or  cotton  cloth  is  another  method  of  making  patterns.  All 
girls  at  some  time  have  made  patterns  for  dolls'  clothing  by 
pinning  cloth  or  paper  about  the  doll,  and  with  scissors  cutting 
out  neck,  armhole,  and  other  parts  to  form  a  pattern.  Skill- 
ful dressmakers,  without  use  of  patterns,  join  and  drape 
materials  into  desired  shapes,  using  the  scissors  to  cut  away 
superfluous  parts.  All  this  is  a  free  way  of  pattern  making. 
In  beginning  this  study  one  should  try  to  combine  the  use 
of  these  various  methods  in  order  to  have  a  full  understand- 
ing of  the  many  possibilities.  If  one  learns  to  model  a 
shirt-waist  pattern  on  a  figure  before  learning  to  draft  one, 
there  is  usually  a  better  understanding  of  the  method  of 
making  a  comprehensive  draft  and  of  the  changes  that  can  be 
made  in  commerical  patterns  to  adapt  them  to  individual 
figures.  One  should  learn  as  soon  as  possible  to  take  meas- 
urements, for  they  will  be  needed  in  using  the  commercial 
pattern  in  order  to  test  it,  or  in  drafting  to  certain  figures. 

How  to  take  measurements.  —  1.  The  bust  measure  is 
taken  by  passing  the  tape  measure  under  the  arms  over  the 

217 


218         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

fullest  part  of  the  bust  and  crossing  tape  in  the  middle  of 
the  back  between  the  shoulder  blades,  sloping  the  tape  very 
slightly  upward.  Take  an  easy  measure. 

2.  The  width  of  back  is  taken  from  armhole  to  armhole 
across  the  widest  part  of  the  back. 

3.  The  length  of  back  is  from  the  small  bone  at  the  nape 
of  the  neck  to  the  waistline. 

4.  The  waist  measure  is  a  snug  measure  about  the  smallest 
part  of  the  waist. 

5.  The  neck  measure  is  taken  by  passing  the  tapeline 
around  as  a  collar  and  is  an  easy  measurement. 

6.  The  width  of  chest  is  taken  three  inches  below  the  lower 
edge  of  collar  band  and  between  the  armholes  in  a  straight 
line. 

7.  The  length  of  front  is  from  the  bottom  of  the  collar 
band  to  the  waistline. 

8.  The  underarm  is  taken  from  the  hollow  under  the  arm 
to  the  waist  in  a  straight  line. 

9.  The  armhole  is  an  easy  measure  around  the  arm  at 
the  shoulder,  over  the  shoulder  bone. 

10.  The  length  of  arm  is  taken  on  the  inside  from  arm- 
hole  to  the  wrist  and  on  the  outside  by  bending  the  arm 
and  passing  the  tape  from  the  shoulder  bone  to  the  elbow 
and  on  to  the  wrist. 

11.  Skirt  measures  are  taken  for  waist,  hip,  and  length  of 
front,  side,  and  back.     The  hip  measure  is  an  easy  one,  and 
is  taken  by  holding  the  tape  around  the  fullest  part  of  the 
hip  and  is  usually  about  six  inches  from  the  waistline  at 
the  hip.     The  length  of  front,  hip,  and  back  are  taken  from 
the  waistline  to  the  floor. 

The  selection  of  the  commercial  pattern.  —  There  are 
many  reliable  firms  furnishing  patterns.  It  is  wise  to  try 
different  makes  until  the  most  satisfactory  is  found.  The 


PATTERNS  219 

simplest  ones  where  proportions  of  the  figure  are  studied  as 
well  as  style  are  usually  the  best.  Patterns  are  bought  by 
measure  or  by  age,  i.e.  a  pattern  for  a  nightdress,  drawers, 
or  dress  for  fourteen-year  age  or  as  a  shirt  waist  for  34- 
inch  jbust  measure.  Patterns  for  skirts  state  the  waist, 
hip,  and  length  measures.  Good  sense  and  thought  are 
needed  in  the  selection  of  patterns,  for  one  should  keep  in 
mind  the  figure  for  which  it  is  to  be  used.  Standard  measures 
only  are  used  in  making  commercial  patterns.  In  some 
figures  it  may  happen  that  the  hip  measure  is  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  waist  and  consequently  waist  and  hip  do  not 
bear  the  same  relation  as  those  of  the  standard  pattern. 
In  selecting  a  pattern  for  such  a  figure,  one  should  compare 
the  measures  given  on  the  pattern  with  those  of  the  person 
for  whom  it  is  to  be  used.  If  there  is  a  difference,  and  the 
waist  is  smaller,  it  would  be  good  sense  in  selecting  a  skirt 
pattern  to  choose  one  with  the  hip  corresponding  and  fit 
the  waist.  If  the  waist  is  larger  than  the  waist  of  the 
standard,  choose  one  with  the  proper  hip  measure  and  add 
to  the  seams  so  as  to  fit  at  waistline  (see  Fig.  98). 

Interpreting  patterns.  —  Before  using  a  pattern  it  is  wise 
to  study  its  pieces  carefully.  Read  the  directions  and  notice 
the  numbering  of  its  parts.  Usually  only  one  half  of  each 
part  is  given.  It  is  wise  then  to  notice  carefully  the  notches 
and  perforations,  for  if  only  one  half  of  a  pattern  is  given, 
some  parts  must  be  placed  on  a  fold  of  the  material  so  as  to 
have  those  parts  cut  in  one  piece.  Care  and  thought  must 
be  exercised  constantly.  Some  patterns  allow  for  seams  and 
others  do  not.  Notice  the  perforations,  especially  those 
which  indicate  how  the  pattern  is  to  be  placed  on  the  warp 
threads.  This  is  a  very  important  point.  A  group  of  triple 
perforations  at  the  edge  usually  means  cut  that  edge  of  the 
pattern  on  a  fold  of  the  cloth.  In  studying  the  pattern  be 


220          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

able  to  identify  each  part  and  to  tell  the  relationship  of  one 
piece  to  another. 

Testing  and  altering  patterns.  —  After  selecting  and  study- 
ing the  pattern  the  next  step  is  to  test  it  before  use,  for 
some  alterations  may  be  necessary  in  order  that  the  gar- 
ment fit  well.  Take  the  measurements  of  the  person  to  be 
fitted  and  compare  these  measurements  with  correspond- 
ing measurements  of  the  pattern.  The  proportions  of 
waist,  sleeve,  or  skirt  may  be  changed  in  length  or  width  to 
suit  figures  not  quite  in  proportion  to  the  standard  pattern. 
To  change  length  of  front  or  back  portions  of  a  shirt  waist, 
measure  from  collar  band  seam  at  the  back  of  the  neck  to 
the  waistline,  and  also  of  underarm  from  armhole  to  the 
waistline.  When  the  figure  is  long  waisted  from  the  arm- 
hole  to  the  waistline  and  short  from  underarm  to  the  neck 
or  the  reverse,  change  of  pattern  can  be  made  by  slashing 
the  pattern  and  inserting  a  piece  to  lengthen,  or  reducing 
length  by  taking  a  plait  in  the  pattern  (see  Fig.  99). 
The  amount  will  depend  on  the  difference  between  the 
measure  and  the  pattern  at  the  two  lengths.  If  this  altera- 
tion is  to  be  made,  it  should  be  done  at  a  distance  of  about 
2-J-  inches  above  the  waistline.  This  plait  or  insert  should 
be  in  a  straight  line,  and  may  necessitate  building  up  the 
armhole.  Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  two 
plaits  or  inserts,  one  between  waist  and  bust  and  the  other 
between  bust  and  shoulder.  To  shorten  or  lengthen  a  simple 
skirt  pattern,  cut  and  insert  a  piece,  or  lay  a  plait  from  6  to 
8  inches  below  the  hip  line  in  each  gore  —  that  will  be  about 
12^  inches  from  waist  (see  Fig.  98).  This  shows  also 
how  the  pattern  can  be  changed  to  increase  the  waist  meas- 
ure without  changing  the  hip.1 

1  A  gore  is  a  portion  of  a  skirt  and  is  narrowed  at  the  top  to  fit  the  waist 
and  flares  at  the  bottom  to  give  fullness. 


FIG.  98.  — Alteration  of  patterns. 
221 


FIG.  99.  — Alteration  of  patterns. 
222 


PATTERNS  223 

In  order  to  test  the  commercial  pattern  after  such  sug- 
gested changes  have  been  made,  cut  a  simple  waist  or  skirt 
pattern  from  inexpensive  muslin  or  calico  and  change  it  by 
fitting  and  adjusting  to  suit  the  person.  This  when  corrected 
may  be  kept  for  a  foundation  pattern  and  adapted  to  chang- 
ing styles. 

Very  square  or  very  sloping  shoulders  cannot  be  fitted 
with  a  standard  pattern  without  wrinkles.  Very  square 
shoulders  often  cause  wrinkles  across  the  chest  or  in  diagonal 
lines  from  neck  to  armhole.  If  wrinkles  form  at  front  or 
back  of  neck  crosswise,  the  pattern  must  be  changed  at 
neck  and  shoulder.  The  neck  should  be  cut  out  and  the 
shoulder  line  from  the  neck  to  armhole  changed  in  slant 
by  dropping  at-  the  shoulder.  There  may  also  be  wrinkles 
at  right  angles  to  the  shoulder.  .  This  necessitates  certain 
alterations  —  stretch  the  front  shoulder,  which  should  be 
shorter  than  the  back.  For  the  sloping  shoulder  do  not  cut 
out  the  neck,  but  take  off  some  material  at  the  shoulder 
seam,  increasing  the  amount  from  neck  to  armhole.  This 
will  decrease  the  size  of  the  armhole,  which  should  be  made 
larger  by  cutting  away  under  the  arm.  The  waistline  can 
be  adjusted  to  fit  the  overerect  flat  shoulder  blade  by  chang- 
ing the  slant  at  center  back.  Care  must  be  taken  in  alter- 
ing the  pattern  for  the  person  who  has  formed  bad  habits 
of  sitting  or  standing  and  allowed  fat  to  accumulate  across 
the  shoulders.  A  careful  distribution  of  gathers  at  the  waist- 
line, in  fitting,  will  help  to  correct  this  appearance.  When 
on  such  a  figure  there  is  fullness  at  the  armhole  towards  the 
front,  so  that  it  stands  out,  drop  the  whole  front  from  1  inch 
to  1|-  inches  lower  than  the  back  at  underarm  seam  and 
build  up  the  armhole  (see  Fig.  100). 

A  knowledge  of  drafting  helps  decidedly  in  the  under- 
standing and  altering  of  commercial  patterns,  therefore  it  is 


FIG.  100.  — Alteration  of  patterns. 


224 


PATTERNS  225 

wise  for  every  girl  to  learn  some  simple  method  of  drafting. 
There  are  many  good  systems  in  use.  The  aim  is  not  to 
commit  to  memory  the  system,  but  to  become  free,  through 
the  use  of  any  system,  so  that  one  understands  parts  and 
can  invent  one's  own  drafts  and  change  patterns  made  by 
others.  The  drafted  pattern  has  the  advantage  over  the 
commerical  in  not  requiring  as  many  changes. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name    three    types  of  patterns.    Which  do  you  think  is  in 
most  general  use?      State  some  advantages    of    the    commercial 
pattern. 

2.  Name  three  essential  points  to  observe  in  reading  the  commer- 
cial pattern. 

3.  How  do  you  test  a  pattern?    Why?    What  measurements  is 
it  necessary  to  take  for  testing  a  waist  pattern ;  a  skirt  pattern? 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 

IN  preparation  for  simple  straight-rule  drafting,  one  should 
have  a  good  rule  or  square,  a  tapeline,  pencil,  and  paper  large 
enough  for  the  particular  pattern  to  be  drafted.  The  first 
step  is  to  take  the  necessary  measurements  for  the  particular 
garment.  With  a  little  practice  it  will  soon  become  evident 
which  measures  are  needed  and  why.  The  second  step  in 
learning  to  draft  is  to  make  a  rough  sketch  of  the  outline 
of  the  pattern  you  expect  to  make.  This  helps  in  placing 
relationship  of  parts,  and  with  the  beginner  aids  materially 
in  the  understanding  of  them. 

I.  One  of  the  simplest  drafts  for  the  beginner  is  the  kimono 
nightdress  (see  Fig.  101). 

(1)  The  measurements  needed  are  — 

1.  Length  from  highest  part  of  shoulder  to  floor. 

2.  Width  across  chest  plus  length  needed  for  sleeves. 

3.  Loose  bust  measure. 

4.  Width  and  length  (underarm)  of  sleeves: 

(2)  Make  a  rough  sketch  of  the  kimono  gown,  as  it  appears  to  you. 

(3)  To  draft: 

Fold  the  paper,  which  should  be  wide,  lengthwise  through  center, 
so  that  when  completed  a  full  pattern  of  front  is  made.  The  pattern 
is  to  be  drafted  on  the  folded  edge. 

1.  Measure  on  that  edge  the  length  of  the  garment  ST  according 
to  measure. 

2.  At  the  bottom  S  measure  out  at  right  angles  \  the  width  you 
desire  the  finished  gown  at  the  bottom  SB.     Remember  this  draft 
on  the  fold  represents  but  half  the  front. 

3.  At  right  angles  to  point  T  place  the  shoulder  line  TL,  which 
will  be  the  measurement  of  one  half  the  chest  and  sleeve  length. 

226 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 


227 


X'! 


FIG.  101.  —  Kimono  nightdress. 

On  that  line  measure  from  the  fold  for  the  desired  neck  to  be  cut  out, 
square,  round,  or  V-shaped. 


228          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

4.  At  point  L  draw  line  to  represent  width  of  sleeve  at  right  angles 
to  TL.     LA  is  the  width  of  sleeve. 

5.  Draw  the  sleeve  seam  parallel  to  the  shoulder  according  to 
underarm  measure,  line  AO. 

6.  Draw  side  of  garment  a  good  line  connecting  points  0  and  B. 

7.  0  can  tte  rounded  instead  of  a  sharp  angle  and  makes  a  better 
underarm. 

8.  The  bottom  should  also  be  sloped  up  to  sides  to  give  a  better 
line  and  the  bottom  of  sleeve  shaped.     (See  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  103.) 

9.  Cut  out  through  two  thicknesses  of  paper,  making  neck  desired 
shape  and  allow  1"  all  around  for  seams.     In  cutting  the  neck  if 
it  is  desired  lower  in  front,  cut  out  the  pattern  on  a  line  for  the  neck 
desired  in  back  and  lower  the  front  portion  of  material  after  all  is 
cut  out.     Do  not  cut  the  fold.     Notch  in  several  places  with  tiny 
cuts  so  that  garment  can  be  easily  put  together  if  stretched.     This 
pattern  cut  gives  the  full  front  or  back.     In  most  patterns  but  half 
is  given,  but  in  placing  the  pattern  of  the  kimono  nightdress  on 
the  cloth  for  cutting  out  it  is  easier  to  haVe  a  full  front  than  half. 
The  shoulder  is  placed  on  a  crosswise  fold  of  the  cloth  for  cutting. 

II.  A  simple  drawer  draft  (see  Fig.  102). 

(1)  Take  measurements. 

a.  Length  of  leg  from  waist  to  knee. 
6.  Waist  measure. 

c.  Hip  measure  over  fullest  part  of  hip  6"  below  waistline. 

d.  Width  desired  for  drawer  leg  at  bottom. 

(2)  Notice  shape  of  the  finished  drawer  leg. 

(3)  Draw  picture  of  the  way  you  think  the  opened  pattern  of 
one  leg  should  appear. 

(4)  To  draft: 

1.  Fold  the  paper  in  half,  lengthwise.     The  draft  will  be  made  on 
the  folded  edge,  the  upper  half  of  the  paper  representing  the  front 
of  the  drawer  leg  and  the  under  the  back  portion. 

2.  With  the  folded  edge  in  vertical  position,  mark  the  length 
measure  for  drawer  plus  1|".     Begin  about  5"  from  the  top  edge  of 
paper  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  room.     The  edge  between  M  and  N 
will  be  the  length  of  drawer  and  represents  the  side  of  the  drawer  leg. 
This  fold  will  be  placed  on  the  warp  of  the  cloth  in  cutting  out. 

3.  At  N  draw  at  right  angles  a  horizontal  line  to  make  width 
of  leg.     This  may  be  |  waist  measure  plus  3"  or  according  to  measure 
NO. 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 


229 


FIG.  102.  —  Draft  of  drawers. 


4.  From  M  measure  down  £  the  length  plus  H"  to  locate  point  P. 

5.  At  right  angles  to  P  draw  PQ,  which  is  |  the  hip  measure  minus 
two  inches. 

6.  Connect  OQ  for  inner  side  of  leg. 


230          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

7.  At  right  angles  to  MN  at  M  measure  £  the  waist  measure  plus 
I",  draw  dotted  line  MR  for  waistline.     This  will  have  to  be  lowered 
in  front  and  raised  at  back  in  making  pattern  to  allow  for  shape 
of  figure. 

8.  From  M  for  front  of  waist,  measure  on  MR  %  the  waist  measure, 
point  S.     Below  S  place  point   T  \"  to  allow  for  dip  in  front  of 
drawer. 

9.  Connect  MT  with  a  slight  downward  curve  and  TQ  with  an 
inward  curve  for  front  of  drawer  leg. 

10.  From  Q  draw  slanting  line  through  R  extending  4"  beyond 
on  same  slant.     Q  U  equals  back  of  the  leg. 

11.  Connect  M  U  for  top  of  back  part  of  leg. 

12.  Darts  are  from  4"  to  5"  deep    and  about    1"  wide  at  top. 
Dart  I  is  placed  about  5"  from  T  and  dart  II  about  7"  from  U.  If 
necessary  take  off  dart  at  placket  opening. 

13.  The  placket  opening,  which  is  about  6"  in  length,  is  rep- 
resented by  the  dotted  line  in  draft,  parallel  to  MN  and  1"  towards 
the  back  of  leg. 

14.  If  the  drawer  is  to   be  opened  instead  of  closed,  and  legs 
faced  at  center,  more  room  must  be  allowed  in  back  for  lapping. 
The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  change  for  the  extra  fullness  for  lap. 
At  right  angles  to  middle  of  line   UQ  draw  dotted  line  1|"  and 
draw  an  outward  curve. 

15.  To  cut  out  pattern,  cut  on  all  outside  lines  through  two  thick- 
nesses of  paper.     Do  not  cut  the  folded  edge.     Why  ?     Raise  the 
upper  half  of   the  pattern   and  cut  on  line   representing  front  of 
drawer  leg  through  one  thickness  of  paper  only. 

III.   The  shirt  waist  (Fig.  103)  : 

A  good  shirt  waist  draft  is  most  useful,  for  from  it  can  be  made 
not  only  the  shirt  waist  and  variation  of  waists  for  simple  lingerie 
and  one-piece  dresses,  but  the  chemise,  corset  cover,  and  nightdress 
with  sleeve.  A  thorough  understanding  of  this  draft  will  enable 
one  to  change  it  easily,  according  to  measurements,  for  the  other 
garments. 

(I)    Take  measurements  for  shirt  waist. 

1.  Place  tapeline  around  waist,  pin  in  place. 

2.  Length  of  back.     From  bone  in  nape  of  neck  to  bottom  of 
tapeline  at  waist. 

3.  Width  of  back.     Across  broadest  part  of  back  from  armhole 
to  armhole  (not  too  broad). 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS  231 

4.  Width  of  chest.     Across  chest  from  armhole  to  armhole.     3" 
from  hollow  of  neck. 

5.  Underarm.     Fold  tape  at  2"  point   over  lead  pencil.     Place 
pencil  horizontally  under  arm,  with  care  that  shoulder  of  figure  is 
not  raised  unnaturally.     Take  measure   to  bottom  of    tapeline  at 
waist.     Deduct  two  inches. 

6.  Length  affront.     From  hollow  of  neck  to  bottom  of  tape  meas- 
ure at  waist. 

7.  Neck.     Around  bottom  of  neck  band,  not  too  tight  a  measure. 

8.  Bust.     Easy  measure,  pass  tape  measure  over  fullest  part  to 
middle  of  back,  raising  slightly  upward.     Measure  taken  from  be- 
hind figure. 

9.  Waist.     Snug  measure  at  waist. 

10.  Armhole.     Place  tape  around  arm  to  bone  of  shoulder.     Snug 
measure  when  sleeves  are  small. 

Place  the  figures  of  measures  gained  in  this  way  on  the  corner 
of  sheet  of  drafting  paper  or  convenient  place  for  easy  reference. 

(II)  On  a  waist  form  or  human  figure  model  a  half  waist  in  crino- 
line or  tissue  paper.     Place  the  edge  of  the  crinoline  on  a  line  with 
the  center  of  the  back,  with  selvage  lengthwise.     Pin  so  that  cross- 
wise threads  run  across  width  of  back.     Pin  at  neck  and  armhole. 
Crease  where  shoulder  and  underarm  seams  should  fall.     The  tip 
of  shoulder  for  shoulder  seam  is  about  one  third  the  distance  from 
center  front  to  center  back  of  neck,  and  about  one  inch  back  of 
highest  point  of  shoulder.     The  top  of  underarm  seam  should  fall 
on  line  with  it  and  slope  slightly  towards  back  at  waistline.     Pin 
fullness  in  at  waistline  towards  center  back.     For  front,  pin  selvage 
along  line  of  center  front.     Allow  plenty  at  top  to  cut  neck  and 
shoulder.     Pin  carefully  so  line  is  straight  across   chest.     Crease 
shoulder  and  underarm  seams.     Cut  away  extra  material.     Pin  in 
fullness   at    waistline    in    plaits.      This    is    good    practice  before 
drafting. 

(III)  Draw  a  rough  sketch  of  the  way  you  think  the  half  front 
and  half  back  will  appear.      It  is  necessary  to   draft  but   half  of 
each,  but  for  convenience  draw  them  side  by  side. 

To  draft  back  : 

1.  Towards  left  edge  of  paper  draw  vertical  line  to  represent 
the  length  of  back  AB. 

'    2.  At  right  angles  to  A  draw  line  A  A  to  represent   f  the  whole 
bust  measure  plus  |". 


232 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


3.  Divide  AB  in  half  at  C ;  this  is  the  back  at  about  underarm. 

4.  Divide  AC  in  half  at  D  for  location  of  width  of  back. 

5.  On  A  A  from  middle  back  measure  f  of  |  the  neck  measure 
to  E.     Raise  F  f "  above  E. 

6.  At  right  angles  to  D  draw  DG,  which  measures  |  of  width  of 
back. 

7.  At  G  erect  perpendicular  line  GH  same  length  as  AE. 


FIG.  103.  — Shirt  waist  draft. 


8.  One  half  inch  to  right  of  H  on  line  place  /. 

9.  Connect  A  with  curve  to  F  for  neck  and  F  with  straight  line 
to  I  for  shoulder. 

10.  From  C  draw  at  right  angles  CJ,  which  equals  \  width  of 
back  plus  \  of  that  measure. 

11.  At  B  draw  BK  at  right  angles,  equaling  £  the  waist  measure. 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS  233 

12.  From  K  draw  slanting  line  through  J,  which  will  equal  under- 
arm measure  KL. 

13.  Connect  /,  G,  and  L,  with  an  easy  curve  for  armhole. 

14.  From  B  drop  line  4"  BM. 

15.  From  K  draw  slanting  line  KN  for  bottom  4"  long.     This  is 
made  with  rule  on  F  and  K. 

16.  Connect  M  and  N  —  straight  line. 

To  draft  front.     (In  figure  this  is  drawn  to  overlap  slightly  the  back 
at  bottom). 

1.  Continue  construction  lines  A  A,  DD,  CC,  and  BB,  all  equal 
|  bust  plus  \" . 

2.  Towards  right  edge  of  paper  and  at  right  angles  to  line  A  A, 
drawn  to  represent  ^  whole  bust  measure  plus  \n ',  draw  line  AN  in- 
definitely. 

3.  On  A  A  from  A  measure  \  of  \  neck  measure  for  point  E. 

4.  From  E  draw  EF,  which  equals  \" . 

5.  From  D  draw  DG,  which  equals  £  width  of  front. 

6.  From  A  measure  on  AN  |  of  £  neck  measure  plus  \" .      H  is 
point  of  neck  in  hollow  at  front ;  make  neck  curve  FEH. 

7.  To  construct  shoulder  line,  measure  from  A   ^  of  distance 
between  A  D.     Draw  dotted  construction  line  parallel  to  A  A .     From 
F  measure  in  slanting  line  to  meet  dotted  line  the  length  of  back 
shoulder  less  £".     Shoulder  line  is  FI. 

8.  From  point  J  of  back  draft,  drop  perpendicular  dotted  line 
to  meet  line  BB  at  point  K. 

9.  To  left  of  K  measure  one  inch  K2. 

10.  From  K2  draw  through  J  line  for  underarm  of  front  according 
to  underarm  measure.      It  is  slightly  longer  than  back  underarm. 
Point  L. 

11.  Draw  armhole  curve  IGL. 

12.  From  H  measure  length  of  front  H  M. 

13.  Connect  K2  with  M  for  front  waistline. 

14.  From  M  measure  down  4"  for  point  N. 

15.  From  K2  draw  slanting  line  4"  long  towards  bottom  of  front 
with  rule  on  F  of  shoulder  and  K2.     Connect  0  and  N. 

To  draft  shirt  waist  sleeve  (see  Fig.  104)  : 

(I)    Take  measurements  for  shirt  waist  sleeve. 

1.  Length  inside  of  arm  minus  depth  of  cuff. 

2.  Measure  around  top  of  largest  part  of  arm  plus  fullness  de- 
sired. 


234 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


3.  Measure  of  hand  over  knuckles    (hand  extended  as  in  put- 
ting through  sleeve)  plus  desired  fullness. 

(II)  This  sleeve  is  to  be  drafted  in  one  piece.     Draw  a  rough 
sketch  of  the  way  it  will  appear. 

(III)  To  draft  sleeve.    Draw  dotted  lines  to  form  rectangle 

ABCD  and  draft  sleeve 
within  it.  AB  equals 
length  of  sleeve  plus  4" 
or  5".  AC  equals  meas- 
ure around  top  plus  full- 
ness desired. 

On  CD  from  D  meas- 
ure length  of  sleeve  DE. 
On  AB  measure  same 
length  FB. 

Divide  BD  for  center 
sleeve  point  G. 

From  G  in  both  direc- 
tions on  BD  measure  £ 
the  hand  measure  plus 
fullness  desired  for  points 
/  and  H. 

Points  72  and  Hz  are 
one  inch  above. 

Join  FP  and  EH 2  for 

-£•  £-  _^/y    I          inside  line  of  sleeve  and 

:Ufc^  J^ZT^-=»~— -crcrtTli:__  — V_        /2  and  H2  with  G  for  bot- 
i  G-  H .        -P       torn. 

From    E    measure    to 
left     three     inches     for 
point  J.    Two  inches  above  J  place  K. 

Divide  AC  in  half  for  point  L  at  top  of  sleeve  and  make  top  curve 
of  sleeve  for  upper  and  under  side  of  sleeve. 

IV.    To  change  shirt  waist  draft  to  nightdress  (see  Fig.  105). 
(I)  For  front. 

1.  Continue  length  of  front  according  to  desired  length.     Meas- 
ure of  length  is  taken  from  highest  point  of  shoulder  to  floor. 

2.  From  that  point  at  right  angles  draw  line  for  bottom  of  the 
gown  —  an  indefinite  length. 


&  H 

FIG.  104.  —Shirt  waist  sleeve  draft. 


FIG.  105. — Nightgown  developed  from  shirt  waist  draft. 
235 


236 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


3.  Point  R  from  A  is  ^  neck  measure  +  1^  inches. 
Point  S  equals  £  shoulder  from  I. 
Connect  for  neck  curve  of  low-neck  gown. 
Point  T  is  3  inches  from  K. 


FIG.  106.  —  Chemise  developed  from  shirt  waist  draft. 

4.  Connect    L   at    underarm    and    bottom    with    slanting   line 
through  J. 

5.  Curve  at  bottom  —  to  give  correct  underarm  length. 
(II)    For  back. 

1.  Continue  length  of  middle  back  to  desired  length. 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 


237 


2.  From  that  point  draw  at  right  angles  line  for  bottom  an  indefi- 
nite length. 

3.  Point  R  equals  |  neck  —  2  inches. 
Point  S  equals  £  shoulder  from  7. 

Connect  with  neck  curve  for  low-neck  gown. 
Point  T  is  2"  from  K. 


FIG.  107.  —  Corset  cover  developed  from  shirt  waist  draft. 

4.  Connect  L  at  underarm  with  bottom  by  slanting  line  through 
T. 

In  cutting  material,  if  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  tucks  around 
neck  in  front  or  back  add  to  the  width  in  placing  pattern,  according 
to  number  and  width  of  tucks,  at  the  center  front  or  center  back. 
Two  inches  will  give  good  fullness.  (See  dotted  line  in  draft.) 

V.    To  change  shirt  waist  draft  to  chemise  (see  Fig.  106). 

Change  in  same  way  as  for  nightdress  except  at  point  T,  which 
is  1^  inches  out  from  K  on  both  the  front  and  back  drafts.  This 
is  to  give  less  fullness  than  the  nightdress  at  the  waist.  The  dotted 


238 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


lines  in  drawing  indicate  the  way  in  which  the  chemise  can  be  cut 
on  the  underarm  seam  curve  at  the  waist  for  still  less  fullness.  Two 
inches  more  or  less  on  front  or  back  can  be  added  for  tucks  as  de- 
sired. Curve  at  bottom  according  to  length. 

VI.  To  change  shirt  waist  draft  for   corset  cover  (see  Fig.  107). 
For  front.     Allow  2"  or  more  for  fullness  and  plait  at  front. 

Point  R  from  A  =  \  of  neck  plus  1  \" . 
Point  S  =  |  of  shoulder  from  /. 
For  back.  — 

Point  R  from  A  =  \  of  neck  -  2". 
Point  S  =  |  of  shoulder  from  7. 

VII.  To  draft  the  peplum  for  a  corset  cover  Oee  Fig.  108).     If  it 
is  desired  to  finish  at  waist  with  less  fullness  ovor  hips  and  abdomen. 

1.  Draw  a  square  abed,     ab  =  \ 
waist  minus  1  inch. 

2.  Measure  from  C  four  inches 
for  point  E. 

3.  Measure  from  B  four  inches 
for  point  F. 

4.  AE  =  radius    of    circle    for 
waistline,    which   should   equal    £ 
waist  measure. 

5.  Four  inches  below  FE  draw 
curve  BC  for  bottom  of  peplum. 

6.  FB  =  center  front. 

7.  From   C  measure  down  \" . 
Connect    E    with  that  point    for 
center  back. 

VIII.  The  skirt  draft.     It  is  also  advisable  to  learn  to  use  a  skirt 
draft  which  can  be  changed  to  conform  to  the  varying  styles  of 
skirts,  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  9  gored  skirts,  with  panel  front  and  back, 
and  the  other  changes  from  season  to  season.     From  such  a  draft 
petticoats  may  also  be  made.     Every  high  school  girl  should  be  able 
to  draft  such  patterns  and  to  learn  to  alter  and  adapt  others.     This 
foundation  pattern  if  well  understood  will  serve  such  purposes. 

(I)    To  take  measurements  for  drafting  foundation  skirt  draft. 

1.  Place  tape  around  waist  and  pin. 

Four  length  measures  are  needed :  center  front,  center  back, 
right  hip,  and  left  hip.  All  are  taken  from  bottom  of  tapeline  at 
waist  to  floor. 


FIG. 


108. — Peplum  draft  for  cor- 
set cover. 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 


239 


2.  Hip  measure.     An  easy  measure  around  the  fullest  part  of 
hip.     Add  to  this  two  inches  when  narrow  skirts  are  worn. 

3.  Waist  measure.     Snug  measure. 

4.  Measure  for  dart  at  hip.     Straight  line  from  bottom  of  tape- 
line  at  waist,  over  fullest  part  of  hip  to  locate  depth  where  hip  line 
should  be  drawn  in  draft.     This  varies  from  5|"  to  6£"  in  length. 

After  taking  the  necessary  measurements  the  next  step  is  to  de- 
cide on  the  width  of  the  bottom  of  the  skirt.  This  is  in  proportion 
to  the  hip  and  varies  from  If  to  2^  times  the  hip. 

(II)    To  draft  the  foundation  skirt  (see  Fig.  109). 

1.  For  construction  of  waistline    and    hip  draw  the    rectangle 
ABCD.     Only  one  half  of  the  pattern  will  be  drafted.     AB  =  |  the 
hip  measure.      AC 

=  TV  of  \  the  width      fi  g^     ^ 

desired  around  bot- 
tom. 

2.  To  locate  on 
AB   the  point   for 
the  waistline,  meas- 
ure from  B,  |  of  | 
the  width    around 
the      bottom      for 
point  E. 

3.  Draw        EF 
parallel  to  BD. 

4.  To  locate  hip 
dart,  divide  CF  in 
half  for  point  G. 

5.  Find  the  dif- 
ference   in    length 
between   the  front 
length    and    larger 
hip      length      and 
measure  the  differ- 
ence above  point  G 

for  point  H.     This     FIG.  109.  —  Foundation  skirt  draft  from  which  skirts 
allows       for       the  of  gored  division  can  be  made, 

proper  waist  curve 

and  dip  in  front.     Draw  the  waist  curve  slightly  up  to  meet  H  from 
C  at  center  front  and  E  at  center  back. 


240 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


6.  Measure  from.  C  for  the  length  of  front  CI. 

7.  With  ruler  at  right  angles  to  the  waist  curve  at  H  measure 
length  of  larger  hip  for  location  of  point  J  at  the  bottom. 

8.  From  E  draw  dotted  line  for  length  of  back.     Point  K  will  be 
located  by  measuring  from  /  through  J  and  to  K  for  \  of  the  de- 
sired width  at  bottom,  at  point  locating  length  of  back  from  E. 

9.  From  H  with  ruler  at  right  angles  to  waistline  measure  down 
length  of  dart  measure.     Place  point  L. 

10.  Point  M  is  placed  on  CI.  It  is  the  depth  of  dart  minus  the 
difference  between  the  front  and  larger  hip  length  from  G. 

11.  Point   N   is 
found  on  line  EK 
and  is  the  depth  of 
dart  minus  or  plus 
the    difference    be- 
tween the  hip  and 
back  length. 

12.  Draw   the 
hip  curve. 

13.  Measure  the 
hip  curve  of  draft 
and  compare  with 
measure  taken.     If 
too  short,  draw  a 
new    back    length 
line  at  the  extension 
point   and    extend 
waist  curve  beyond 
E  to  meet  it.    This 
does   not    increase 
the  width  at  bot- 
tom. 

FIG.  110.  —  Six-gored  skirt  draft  from  proper  division  This  foundation 
of  the  foundation  skirt.  draft  of  skirt  can 

now  be  divided  to  make  a  4,  5,  6,  7,  or  9  gored  skirt. 

III.  To  divide  the  foundation  draft  into  six-gored  skirt  (see  Fig. 
110). 

1.  Make  the  foundation  draft  according  to  measures.  The  space 
within  the  outline  of  skirt  is  to  be  divided  for  six  gores.  This  is 
but  half N the  skirt. 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS 


241 


2.  Draw  front  gore.     Measure  on  the  hip  line  £  of  \  hip  measure. 
Place  dot.     On  bottom  line  from  front  line  measure  If  times  the 

space  from  front  to  dot  placed  for  hip  point  of  front  panel.     Con- 
nect these  two  dots  continuing  to  waistline. 

3.  Draw  back  gore.     This  is  \  "  wider  at  hip  line  from  center 
back  than  the  front  panel,  and  is  If  times  this  width  at  bottom. 
Draw  lines  connecting  point  at  bottom  with  hip  and  waistline. 

4.  Divide  remainder  of  hip  line  in  half.     Divide  remainder  of 
bottom  line  in  half. 

Move  this  last  point  1^  inches  towards  front. 

Draw  line  through  these  points  to  waist  for  hip  seam. 

5.  The  waistline  is  too  large,  so  darts  must  be  taken.      Measure 
waistline  of  draft.     Sub- 
tract from  this  \  the  waist 

measure  of  figure ;  the 
remainder  must  be  taken 
out  in  darts  on  \  the 
pattern. 

First.  Take  off  from 
front  and  back  gores, 
on  the  side  of  front  to- 
wards first  gore  measure 
at  waistline  I  to  |  of  an 
inch  and  make  curve  to 
hip  line.  On  the  back 
gore  side  towards  side 
gore  measure  off  i  to  £ 
inch  at  waist  and  draw 
curved  line  to  hip  line. 

Second.  On  first  gore, 
side  towards  front,  take 
off  at  waistline  f  to  1 
inch.  Draw  curve  to  hip 
line.  FIG. 

On   second  gore,    side 
towards  back  at  waist  take  off 
line. 

Third.  Subtract  sum  of  what  has  been  taken  out  in  darts  from 
amount  needed  to  be  taken  out  and  take  the  remainder  from  seams 
over  the  hips. 


111.  —  Four-gored  skirt  made  from  the 
foundation  skirt  draft. 

|  to  H  inches.    Draw  curve  to  hip 


242          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

It  is  advisable  to  take  off  slightly  more  on  the  bias  edge  of  the 
gore  than  from  the  straight.  Draw  curved  lines  to  hip. 

IV.  To  divide  foundation  draft  into  four-gored  skirt  (see  Fig.  111). 
Make  division  for  front  and  back  gores  with  dart  off  at  waist  as  for 
six-gored  division.     One  gore  is  left  for  the  side.     The  hip  dart  is 
taken  at  the  hip  point  of  elevation  and  is  carried  down  much  deeper, 
about  nine  or  ten  inches.     The  slope  for  dart  curves  is  calculated  as 
for  six-gored  division. 

V.  To  divide  foundation  draft  into  five-gored  skirt. 
Use  the  same  division  for  back  as  for  six-gored. 

Combine  the  front  and  first  gore.  In  order  to  reduce  width 
of  this  combination  gore  move  the  hip  seam  forward  one  inch.  This 
will  increase  the  width  of  second  gore.  Make  darts  as  suggested  for 
six  and  four  gored  division. 

With  the  above  practice  in  division  of  this  skirt  outline  it  is 
possible  to  divide  the  space  according  to  style  into  7,  9,  or  11  gores. 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  drafting  ?     What  help  is  such  knowledge  in  the  use  of 
commercial  patterns  ? 

2.  Explain  how  measurements  are  taken  for  a  nightdress  ;  corset 
cover ;  petticoat ;  drawers. 

3.  What  principles  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  selecting  a  commer- 
cial pattern  ?     How  can  one  learn  to  interpret  them  ? 

4.  Draft  a  pattern  of  a  kimono  gown  for  some  one  at  home. 

5.  Draft  pattern  for  drawers  with  full  width  leg. 

6.  Draft  a  foundation  skirt  pattern  using  the  following  measures  : 
Hip  40". 

Lengths  :  Front  40" ;  Right  hip  4H";  Left  hip  41  £" ;  Back 

42". 

Dart  6*". 
Waist  24". 
%  desired  width  of  bottom  33£". 

7.  Draft  a  shirt  waist  and  show  how  it  can  be  changed  for  use  as 
a  nightdress.     Use  following  measures  : 

Length  of  back  15". 
Width  of  back  13". 
Underarm  8£". 


THE  DRAFTING  OF  PATTERNS  243 

Length  of  front  16". 
Neck  12^". 
Bust  36". 
Waist  24  ". 
Armhole  14". 

8.  Take  the  measurements  of  a  corset  cover  which  you  like  and 
draft  a  pattern. 

9.  From  the  foundation  skirt  draft  make  a  pattern  according  to 
the  prevailing  style  you  desire. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CUTTING   AND   MAKING   GARMENTS 

Cutting  of  underwear  and  other  garments.  —  Before  cut- 
ting into  material  it  is  wise  to  lay  all  the  pieces  of  the  pattern 
on  the  cloth.  A  large  flat  surface  is  necessary.  Much  care 
and  thought  should  be  exercised  in  placing  the  pieces. 
When  there  is  a  nap  or  pile,  it  should  run  towards  the  bottom 
of  the  garment.  See  that  flowers  or  figures  all  run  one  way, 
and  be  careful  to  match  plaids  so  that  where  they  meet  at 
seams  the  prominent  stripes  match  instead  of  meeting  at 
angles  to  each  other.  If  the  material  has  a  right  and  wrong 
side,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  parts  all  for  one  side 
of  the  garment,  such  as  two  sleeves  for  one  arm.  This  can 
be  avoided  by  folding  the  cloth  with  two  right  or  two  wrong 
sides  together  and  cutting  two  at  once,  or  by  placing  the 
right  side  of  the  portion  cut  to  the  right  side  of  the  material 
and  using  it  for  a  pattern.  When  figures  and  right  and 
wrong  sides  must  be  considered,  careful  planning  is  neces- 
sary and  as  a  rule  more  cloth  is  needed,  for  the  pieces  can- 
not be  placed  as  economically. 

In  placing  the  pieces  be  as  saving  as  possible.  'The  wide 
end  of  a  gore  or  portion  cuts  to  better  advantage  at  the  cut 
end  of  the  cloth.  Always  remember  the  triple  perforations 
representing  half  a  skirt  front  or  back  portion  of  a  waist 
must  be  placed  on  a  fold  of  the  cloth.  Follow  directions 
given  on  patterns  for  placing,  as  for  instance  the  line  of  large 
single  perforations  on  the  warp. 

Pin  the  parts  carefully  first  where  straight  edges  come, 

244 


CUTTING   AND   MAKING   GARMENTS  245 

and  smooth  carefully  towards  top  and  bottom  and  pin.  Do 
not  use  too  many  pins.  Cut  on  the  line  of  pattern  unless 
necessary  to  allow  seams.  Use  long  shears  and  cut  with 
even  edges.  Mark  the  notches  with  a  pencil,  chalk,  or 
basting  thread.  Never  cut  notches  in  cloth. 

The  fitting  of  undergarments.  —  Comparatively  little  fit- 
ting is  necessary,  if  the  measurements  have  been  carefully 
taken  and  the  commercial  pattern  altered  or  draft  made  for 
the  individual.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  armhole 
comfortable  and  in  fitting  the  nightgown  or  corset  cover, 
notice  especially  if  this  needs  to  be  slashed  in  fitting  and 
later  cut  out.  The  length  of  garments  should  be  noticed 
especially,  and  all  should  be  fitted  loosely,  as  they  will  shrink 
somewhat  in  length  and  width  when  laundered.  In  fitting 
petticoats  made  from  the  commercial  pattern,  be  sure  the 
pattern  is  understood.  If  the  hip  is  smaller  than  waist 
measure  the  hip  seam  must  be  taken  in ;  if  the  pattern  for 
the  individual  has  a  waist  measure  in  proportion  to  its  hip 
but  larger  than  the  waist  of  the  person  to  be  fitted,  it  must 
be  fitted  at  the  waistline. '  Drawers  and  combinations 
should  be  smoothly  fitted  over  the  hips  so  that  no  wrinkles 
will  show  through  the  outer  garments. 


SUGGESTED   PROBLEMS    IN    SEWING 

I.    Simple  machine  work  in  preparation  for  more  advanced 
machine  sewing  on  garments. 

1.  Pillow  case.  —  To  be  made  of  muslin  of  desired  width. 
Practice  in  stitching  can  be  had  on  the  long  seam  at  side 
and  across  end.     Turn,  baste,  and  stitch  three-inch  hem. 

2.  Protecting  cover  for  gowns.  —  There  are  many  simple 
patterns  of  this  kind,  from  the  bag  with  draw  strings  at  the 
top  to  the  oblong  bag  with  turnover  piece  at  top  where  hole 


246  SHELTER   AND  CLOTHING 

is  left  for  the  hanger.  Such  covers  offer  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  practice  in  stitching  and  are  very  useful.  They 
can  be  used  to  cover  gowns  stored  away  in  a  closet  or  for 
light,  perishable  ones.  Canton  crepe,  unbleached  muslin, 
lawn,  and  dimity  are  suitable.  If  made  with  a  flap  at  the 
top,  this  turnover  piece  can  be  bound  with  tape  or  ribbon 
as  can  the  hole  at  top  where  hanger  protrudes,  or  edges  can 
be  hemmed. 

3.  Aprons.  —  Current  magazines  suggest  many  kinds  of 
aprons  which  can  be  made  by  machine.     The  simple  nurse's 
or  maid's  aprons  offer  opportunity  for  practice.     The  one- 
piece  princess  style  is  very  useful  for  kitchen  wear  and  can 
be  made  of  tan  or  blue  chambray  or  figured  percales. 

4.  Laundry  or  stocking  bags.  —  There  are  many  varieties 
of  such  bags.     Church  fairs  often  have  suggestive  types. 
The  bag  with  a  draw  string  is  very  useful.     The  laundry 
bag  can  be  extended  at  the  top  with  a  stick  and  a  slit  cut 
in  the  middle  of  the  front  side  and  bound.     There  are  many 
possibilities  in  materials,  and  combinations  of  two  kinds  can 
be  used  for  strength  as  well  as  artistic  effect.     Cretonnes 
and  linens  are  strong  enough  for  this  purpose.     The  stocking 
bag  can  be  made  with  a  round   or   oval   stiff  pasteboard 
covered  with  the  same  material  for  the  bottom,  and  the  bag 
part  arranged  with  pockets  before  it  is  attached. 

5.  Traveling  cases. —  Cases  of  linen  lined  with  rubber  or 
linen  are  very  useful.     They  can  be  divided  in  partitions  for 
hairpins,  pins,  combs,  brush,  powder,  and  other  necessary 
articles.     They  can  be  bound  with  tape  or  white  linen  in 
contrast.      A  very  nice  present  for  a  traveler  is  an  outfit  of 
cases.     This  is  composed  of  three  flat  pieces  bound  or  hemmed 
to  cover  over  clothes  in  trays  of  trunk.     They  can  be  hemmed 
or  bound  by  machine  and  marked  with  cross-stitch  letters. 
Small  bags  for  shoes  and  slippers  also  marked  add  to  the  set. 


CUTTING   AND    MAKING   GARMENTS 


247 


The  flat  case  with  partitions  above  mentioned  completes  the 
outfit. 

Cases  for  rubbers  are  also  very  useful  for  traveling,  and  can 
be  made  by  machine  and  decorated  with  cross-  6*r  feather-stitch. 

6.  Other  cases.  —  Cases  for  flat  silver  can  be  made  of  long 
strips  of  cotton  flannel  in  white  or  colored,  partitioned  and 
bound  according  to 
spaces  desired.  These 
can  be  rolled  up  and 
tied  with  a  piece  of 
ribbon  or  tape  like  the 
binding.  Cases  for 
centerpieces  or  doilies 
can  be  made  of  a  flat 
piece  of  cretonne  or 
linen  with  lining  of 
same  or  contrasting 
color,  and  attach  a 
round  stick  at  one  end 
of  the  strip  so  as  to 
roll  the  doilies.  This 
round  stick  may  be  a 
piece  of  broom  handle. 
A  space  as  a  casing  is 
left  at  one  end  and 
the  stick  slipped  be- 
tween the  two  thick- 
nesses of  material. 

The  above   articles 
suggest  some  possibilities  for  machine  practice.     If  one  or 
more  of  the  above  are  made,  they  may  serve  as  gifts. 

II.   Problems  which  offer  review  of  hand  stitches  learned 
in  the  grades  (see  Fig.  112). 


Courtesy  of  J.  McCutcheon. 
FIG.  112.  —  Dainty  neckwear. 


248 


SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 


1.  Work  bags. 

2.  Slipper  bags. 

3.  Serving  aprons,  chafing-dish  aprons. 

4.  Corset  cover  or 
Marguerite  (see  Fig. 

115). 

5.  Jabots. 

6.  Collar  and   cuff 
sets. 

7.  Baby        dresses 
and  caps. 

III.  Garments  to 
be  made  by  machine 
or  to  offer  practice  in 
combination  of  hand 
and  machine  pro- 
cesses. 

1.  Kimono  night- 
dress.—  Use  commer- 
cial or  drafted  pat- 
tern. The  garment 
may  be  cut  from  3J 
yards  of  material,  40 
inches  wide.  Flat  fell 
or  French  seams  by 
machine.  Hem  three 
inches  at  bottom  by 
hand  or  machine. 
Groups  of  tucks  at 
yoke  if  too  full. 
Trimmed  at  yoke  with 
flat  trimming  of  lace  insertion  and  edging  or  scant  ruffle  put 
on  with  bias  bands.  Bottom  of  sleeves  trimmed  to  correspond 


Courtesy  of  J.  McCutcheon. 
FIG.  112a.  —  Dainty  neckwear. 


CUTTING   AND   MAKING   GARMENTS  249 

with  yoke.     (See  description  of  lace  as  decoration,  whipping, 
etc.,  Chapter  XIII.) 

2.    Drawers  (see  Fig.  113). —  Use  drafted  or  commercial 


FIG.  1 13.  —  Drawers  showing  f eatherstitching. 

pattern.     2|  yards  of  cloth  are  necessary.     Prepare  ruffles 
with  simple  decoration  of  featherstitching  (see  decoration 


250          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

and  Figures  98  and  99),  or  ruffles  with  inserts  of  lace,  or  hem 
and  lace  edging.  Ruffles  should  be  one  and  one  half  times 
the  width  of  space  to  be  covered,  or  twice  if  much  fullness  is 
desired.  Divide  ruffles  and  drawers  legs  in  quarters  and 
adjust  fullness  evenly.  These  can  be  joined  to  bottom  of 
legs  as  whipped  ruffles  joined  with  entre  deux  or  bands  of 
embroidery  insertion.  Bias  bands  or  finishing  braid  may 
be  used  instead  of  a  receiving  tuck  made  at  the  bottom  of 
each  leg  and  turned  over  the  rough  edges  of  the  seam.  The 
legs  and  ruffles  can  be  seamed  separately  and  then  joined,  or 
the  ruffles  attached  and  seamed  with  the  leg,  using  the  flat- 
felled  seam.  The  latter  process  is  an  easier  method  when 
the  machine  is  used.  By  hand  it  is  daintier  to  finish  the 
ruffles  separately  and  then  attach  them.  Face  the  open 
drawers  with  a  true  bias  facing  f  of  an  inch  finished.  For 
closed  drawers  apply  flat  fell  by  hand  or  machine.  The 
placket  openings  are  cut  according  to  draft,  1  inch  to  the 
back  of  center  leg.  Face  opening  with  two-inch  strip  cut 
lengthwise  of  the  cloth.  This  is  basted  around  the  entire 
opening  and  stitched  in  seam.  Turn  to  the  wrong  side  and 
stitch  1  inch  wide  half  the  length  of  the  opening.  The  other 
side  is  finished  by  cutting  away  half  of  the  width  of  facing 
less  a  seam  and  folding  it  back  on  the  garment.  This  can 
be  stitched  or  hemmed  by  hand.  Take  dart  to  fit  figure 
over  hips ;  use  felled  seams.  Face  top  with  same  width 
facing.  Tape  can  be  run  in  or  drawers  lapped  and  two  small 
buttonholes  placed  one  below  another. 

3.  Chemise.  —  Use  commercial  pattern  or  altered  shirt 
waist  draft.  Twice  the  length  desired  plus  material  for 
ruffle  is  necessary.  French  seams  by  machine.  One-inch 
hem  at  the  bottom  or  ruffle  by  hand  or  machine.  Trim  at 
armholes  or  around  low  neck  as  desired.  Embroidery  bead- 
ing, for  ribbon  with  lace  edge  not  too  full,  makes  a  neat 


CUTTING   AND    MAKING   GARMENTS  251 

finish.  Scalloping  with  eyelets  for  ribbons  and  feather- 
stitching  makes  an  inexpensive  and  attractive  trimming. 
Armholes  should  correspond  with  the  neck  finish. 


FIG.  114. — Petticoat. 


4.   Petticoat    (see  Fig.  114).— Cut  from   five-gored   skirt 
draft    or    commercial    pattern;    4-4J    yards   are   required. 


252         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

French  seams  by  machine.  Dust  ruffle  at  bottom  —  width 
4  inches  finished.  Cut  across  warp.  Join  widths  (sel- 
vedges) with  overhanding  stitch.  Finish  bottom  of  ruffle  with 
J-inch  hem.  Join  to  bottom  of  skirt  with  receiving  tuck 
f  inch  wide  sewed  flat.  (The  receiving  tuck  covers  the  raw 
edges  of  the  ruffle  where  attached  to  skirt  with  seam  on  right 
side  of  skirt,  and  leaves  no  raw  edges  on  wrong  side.)  Pre- 
pare the  overruffle.  This  may  be  from  6  inches  to  10  inches 
or  deeper  and  of  embroidery  or  same  material  with  inserts 
of  lace,  tucks,  lace  edging,  as  desired  (see  Fig.  114).  This 
ruffle  may  also  be  of  a  finer  or  heavier  quality  of  cloth.  It  can 
be  hand  scalloped  or  trimmed  with  featherstitching  (see 
Fig.  1 13) .  Divide  ruffle  in  quarters,  quarter  skirt,  and  baste 
so  bottom  of  ruffle  is  |  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  dust 
ruffle.  To  cover  raw  edge  at  top  of  ruffle  a  narrow  bias  band 
or  finishing  binding  can  be  basted  and  stitched  on  both  edges 
so  as  to  lie  flat.  Embroidery  beading  for  ribbon  can  also 
be  used  and  is  trimmed  and  stitched  close  at  both  edges. 
The  top  of  ruffle  can  be  finished  also  with  a  receiving  tuck 
f  inch  deep, taken  in  skirt  just  above  the  raw  edges  of  ruffle 
and  turned  down  over  them  and  stitched  flat.  To  finish  the 
top  of  skirt  take  darts  to  fit  figure  if  necessary.  Finish 
placket  with  straight  strip  2  inches  wide.  This  is  made  by 
starting  the  strip  at  the  waistline  with  right  side  of  strip  to 
right  side  of  skirt.  Stitch  and  turn  to  wrong  side  and  hem 
by  hand.  Lap  at  bottom  of  opening  so  it  lies  flat  and  back- 
stitch across  the  bottom  with  slanting  line  of  stitches.  In- 
stead of  this  facing,  that  suggested  for  drawers  might  be 
used.  The  back  is  without  fullness  and  flat  as  possible. 
Finish  top  with  J-inch  true  bias  facing  of  same  cloth  turned 
evenly  with  the  top  and  stitched  flat.  Lap  in  back  with 
three  buttonholes,  one  at  waist,  two  below  on  the  placket 
lap. 


CUTTING   AND   MAKING   GARMENTS  253 

5.  Satin  or  sateen  petticoat.  —  This  can  be  made,  involving 
the  same  principle  as  the  above.     The  overruffle  can   be 
pinked  or  side  plaited. 

6.  Dressing    sacque.  —  Cut    from     commercial    pattern. 
Lawn,  crepon,    dimity,    or   light   madras.     Seams    French. 
Finish  front  with  hems  turned  to  wrong  side,  to  lap  down 
front.     Bottom  with  narrow  hem  J  to  1  inch.     Neck  with 
flat  trimming  or  collar  as  desired.     Collar  if  attached  joined 
to  neck  flat  and  finished  with  bias  band  \  inch  basted  on  right 
side.     Sew  band  and  collar  to  sacque  with  same  stitching, 
turn  with  even  edge  at  neck  and  hem  band  flat  on  inside  of 
the  sacque.     Finish  botton  of  sleeve  with  trimming  to  cor- 
respond with  neck,  cuff,  or  flat  trimming.     Seam  sleeves  with 
French  seam.     Sleeves  put  in  with  French  seams.     Place 
underarm  seam  of  sleeve  2  to  2|  inches  to  front  from  under- 
arm seam  of  sacque.     Baste  with  seam  on  right  side,  adjust 
gathers  so  they  are  distributed  2  inches  back  of  shoulder  and 
4  inches  to  front  of  seam.     Turn  seam  and  finish  with  second 
sewing  on  wrong  side.     Baste  before  stitching. 

7.  Corset  cover  (see  Fig.  115).  — Cut  from  adapted  shirt 
waist  draft  or  commercial  pattern.     One  and  one  half  yards 
of  cloth  are  necessary.     French  seam  at  shoulder  and  under  arm 
—  hand  or  machine.     Front  to  lap  right  over  left.     On  left 
make  hem  f  inch  wide  turned  to  wrong  side.     On  right  of 
front  make  turn  to  right 'as  for  hem.     Stitch,  featherstitch, 
or  run  by  hand  f  inch  from  each  edge  of  front  lap  and  edge 
of  hem  to  hold  in  place.     This  makes  lap  for  front  buttons 
and  buttonholes.     If  buttons  are  to  be  concealed,  a  doubled 
strip  can  be  hemmed  under  right  lap  for  the  buttonholes. 
Even  the  bottom  and  finish  with  narrow  hem.     Gather  at 
waistline  center  front  and  center  back  to  fit  figure.     On  in- 
side under  adjusted  gathers  baste  narrow  straight  band  } 
inch  wide.     Stitch  top  and  bottom.     The  waist  can  also 


254          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

be  finished  with  band  on  the  outside  or  a  row  of  beading. 
Top  of  cover  can  be  gathered  to  fit  figure,  finished  with  entre 
deux  and  lace  edging  attached  with  beading  or  whipped 
ruffles  (see  Chap.  XIII).  Armhole  finished  to  correspond. 


FIG.  115.  —  Corset  cover. 


A  very  neat  finish  for  neck  and  armholes  of  corset  cover  can 
.be  made  by  turning  narrow  hems  J  inch  wide  to  the  right  side 
first,  and  then  turning  back  to  the  wrong  side  as  for  napery  hem. 
Overhand.  If  lace  or  beading  is  to  be  added,  it  can  be  joined 


CUTTING   AND   MAKING   GARMENTS  255 

at  the  same  time.  By  this  method  no  stitches  are  visible 
on  the  right  side.  Buttonholes  should  be  placed  lengthwise 
of  the  box  plait.  If  a  smoother  fit  is  desired  over  the  hips, 
a  peplum  can  be  drafted  (see  Fig.  108)  and  attached  to  the 
waistline  of  cover  with  seam  on  right  side.  The  raw  edges 
can  be  finished  with  a  flat,  straight  band  J  inch  wide  or  a  band 
of  beading  or  lace  insertion. 


PIG.  116.  —  Nightdress. 

8.  Nightdress  with  sleeves  (see  Fig.  1 16)7 —  Cut  from  adapted 
shirt  waist  draft  or  commercial  pattern.  Three  widths  of 
the  desired  length  are  necessary.  Make  flat  felled  seams  at 
underarm  and  shoulder.  Hem  at  bottom  2  inches.  Open 


256  SHELTER  AND   CLOTHING 

down  front  J  of  distance  from  neck  to  floor.  Face  with 
placket  facing  as  described  for  plackets  of  closed  drawers. 
Finish  both  back  and  front  with  tucks  according  to  fullness 
allowed.  These  can  be  made  by  hand  or  machine,  as  time 
permits.  The  high  neck  gown  can  be  finished  with  band  of 
embroidery  insertion  and  tiny  ruffle  of  lace.  The  sleeve 
trimming  should  correspond.  Place  sleeves  in  position  and 
sew  as  for  dressing  sacque.  A  very  neat,  dainty  finish  for 
a  low  neck  gown  can  be  inexpensively  made  by  using  bias 
bands  of  lawn  about  one  inch  finished  (Fig.  116).  These 
can  be  attached  around  low  neck  and  short  sleeve  with 
entre  deux  or  simply  stitched  and  turned  to  wrong  side. 
Colored  ribbon  can  be  run  through  this  casing.  There 
are  many  other  possible  ways  of  finishing  with  long  or 
short,  gathered  or  loose  sleeves.  (See  for  descriptions  of 
decorations  of  underwear,  Chap.  XIII.) 

EXERCISES 

1 .  What  are  the  important  points  to  bear  in  mind  in  the  placing 
of  patterns  and  cutting  out  of  garments  ? 

2.  Give  a  few  suggestions  in  relation  to  the  fitting  of  underwear. 

3.  Describe  the  way  in  which  a  French  seam  is  made  on  under- 
wear ;  a  felled  seam. 

4.  How  would  you  prepare  the  ruffles  for  drawers?     Describe 
two  methods  of  attaching  them  to  the  legs. 

5.  Describe  the  placing  of  the  sleeve  for  a  nightgown  or  dressing 
sacque. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
EMBROIDERY 

Suggestions  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  embroidery. 

—  All  girls  have  interest  at  some  time  or  other  in  embroidery. 
It  is  a  satisfaction  and  a  pleasure  to  be  able  to  ornament  one's 
gowns  in  a  simple  way,  to  make  some  household  article  more 
attractive,  or  to  prepare  simple  gifts  for  friends.  There  are 
a  few  of  the  most  common  stitches  which  if  learned  in  rela- 
tion to  proper  placing,  color,  combination  of  stitches,  and 
adaptation  to  material  produce  very  pleasing  results.  It  is 
interesting  also  to  study  in  museums  and  books  the  relation- 
ship of  the  embroidery  of  to-day  to  the  beautiful  embroidered 
textiles  of  other  centuries  and  embroideries  from  foreign 
lands.  Embroidery  is  the  enriching  of  textile  fabrics  and  other 
materials  with  needlework.  The  art  is  an  old  one,  and  the 
most  primitive  people  have  made  use  of  the  needle  in  this 
way  and  do  to-day.  Among  the  relics  of  the  Swiss  Lake 
Dwellers  have  been  found  most  crude  needles  to  prove  the 
antiquity  of  the  art.  In  the  museum  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  there 
are  several  fragments  of  linen  woven  in  blues,  greens,  reds, 
and  black  and  ornamented  with  needlework.  The  remains 
of  Egyptian  garments  and  mummy  wrappings  found  in  the 
tombs  are  most  interesting.  The  lotus  flower  designs  of 
Egypt  are  fascinating  and  one  piece  bears  the  name  of  the 
owner,  of  the  fifteenth  century  B.C.  In  the  British  Museum 
in  London,  and  the  Louvre  in  Paris  are  to  be  found  interesting 
pieces  of  old  Assyrian  and  Persian  embroideries  dating  back 
s  257 


258  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

to  485  B.C.  Many  of  the  Biblical  writers  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment mention  the  use  of  ornamented  textiles.  Pliny  in  his 
writings  mentions  the  embroidered  garments  of  the  Phrygians. 
The  examples  which  remain  of  Roman  embroideries  of  about 
the  fifth  century  show  figures,  animals,  birds,  flowers,  and 
foliage.  The  method  of  making  was  really  weaving  supple- 
mented with  decoration.  Later  the  influence  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  is  seen  in  the  work  and  the  symbols  used.  There  is 
also  a  greater  choice  of  color.  Later  examples  show  pic- 
torial Bible  scenes.  One  notices  in  studying  the  history  of 
embroidery  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  style  of  the  highly 
conventionalized  forms.  This  lasted  for  several  centuries 
until  probably  the  thirteenth  century. 

There  are  also  many  interesting  examples  in  museums  of 
embroideries  of  the  middle  ages.  While  this  work  was  used 
to  adorn  curtains,  garments,  and  articles  of  household  use, 
the  pieces  preserved  were  generally  the  vestments  and  eccle- 
siastical articles.  The  monks  produced  some  of  this  work  and 
much  was  made  in  convents,  but  there  are  records  of  the  |uilds 
of  embroiderers  of  the  middle  ages.  In  England  the  art  was 
a  favorite  employment  for  many  centuries,  and  flourished 
especially  during  the  thirteenth  century. 

Linens  embroidered  in  wools,  silks,  and  metallic  embroidery 
were  very  beautiful.  The  famous  Bayeux  tapestry  is  231 
feet  long  and  20  inches  in  width.  It  depicts  in  embroidery 
in  seventy-two  scenes  the  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans.  It  is  embroidered  in  worsteds  in  eight  colors  on 
linen  which  is  now  light  brown  from  age. 

There  are  many  interesting  examples  of  French  embroidery 
characterized  by  great  beauty.  The  schools  of  painting  in- 
fluenced the  work  of  the  embroiderers,  and  pictures  were 
copied  in  great  detail,  showing  draperies  beautifully  shaded, 
marbles,  and  architectural  designs.  There  are  also  many 


EMBROIDERY  259 

interesting  samples  of  applique,  where  figures  and  designs  have 
been  cut  from  velvet  and  other  materials  and  embroidered 
in  places. 

The  embroideries  of  Italy  show  great  skill  and  beauty. 
Many  are  worked  in  gold  and  silver  and  silks  of  many  colors 
on  wonderful  materials  of  silk  and  velvet.  The  designs  were 
often  made  by  well-known  artists.  There  are  many  beauti- 
ful examples  also  of  applique,  couching,  and  cutwork  on  linen. 
Some  of  the  Sicilian  examples  are  very  interesting  and  follow 
those  of  Italy,  in  quilting  and  padding  with  wool  to  throw  in 
relief  the  design. 

Spanish  embroideries  reflect  the  influence  of  the  Arabs' 
Oriental  patterns,  and  many  of  the  old  German  embroideries 
follow  the  Byzantine  traditions. 

Indian,  Chinese,  Turkish,  and  Persian  embroideries  date 
back  to  early  times.  Many  of  these  are  beautiful  in  texture 
and  design.  Some  Indian  and  Turkish  embroideries  are  en- 
riched with  pieces  of  glass,  tinsel,  and  beetle  wings.  Chinese 
and  Japanese  embroideries  are  usually  done  in  silk  on  a  back- 
ground of  silk.  Japanese  designs  are  more  pictorial  in  char- 
acter, while  the  Chinese  include  dragons,  birds,  and  flowers. 
The  surface  effects  of  some  of  the  Chinese  embroideries  are 
often  wonderfully  smooth  and  regular.  In  the  Persian  em- 
broideries of  carpets,  robes,  and  hangings,  a  preference  is 
shown  for  floral  designs.  In  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
is  a  beautiful  linen  prayer  rug  quilted  and  embroidered  in 
chain  stitch  of  .silks  in  yellow,  green,  white,  and  red.  The 
design  is  a  floral  one. 

With  the  complexity  of  modern  civilization  the  interest 
in  the  making  of  beautiful  embroideries  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica has  somewhat  subsided.  The  Royal  School  of  Needle- 
work in  England  is  reviving  the  interest  and  there  is  much 
improvement  over  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century 


260  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

examples.  The  influence  of  the  art  of  William  Morris  and 
Burne-Jones  was  felt  in  the  embroidery  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  helped  to  improve  the  designs. 

A  FEW   USEFUL    EMBROIDERY   STITCHES    AND    HOW 
TO  MAKE   THEM 

Darning  stitch  is  made  with  rows  of  even  or  uneven  running 
stitches  so  placed  that  the  stitches  of  alternate  rows  come 
under  the  spaces  of  the  row  above.  Huckaback  toweling 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  basis  for  darning  decoration.  This 
is  a  useful  way  of  filling  in  a  space  and  making  a  figure 
stand  out  in  relief  (see  Fig.  117). 

Chain  stitch  is  found  on  Oriental  embroideries.  The  stitch 
resembles  links  of  a  chain.  Designs  can  be  outlined  with  this 
stitch  or  it  can  be  used  for  filling  in  designs  so  as  to  bring  them 
in  relief  as  in  Persian  work.  It  is  sometimes  used  simply 
in  outlining  or  for  filling  in  initials  on  towels  or  other  articles 
before  covering  with  satin  stitch.  It  is  made  by  bringing 
the  needle  to  the  right  side  on  the  line  of  work,  holding 
thread  with  thumb  of  left  hand  and  replacing  needle  in  same 
hole  from  which  thread  was  first  drawn.  Then  the  needle 
is  drawn  through  loop  formed.  The  loops  should  lie  fiat.  In 
making  this  stitch  the  needle  is  brought  up  each  time  the  same 
distance  as  the  stitch  from  first  hole.  The  stitches  are  even 
and  are  always  taken  in  the  loop  of  the  chain,  not  below  it. 
/(See  Fig.  117  for  application.) 

Blanket  stitch  is  most  useful  and  can  be  used  for  edges  of 
scallops  to  prevent  fraying,  or  other  edge  finishings.  Walla- 
chian  embroidery  is  blanket  stitch  used  to  make  relief  de- 
signs rather  than  on  edges.  It  is  worked  from  left  to  right. 
The  work  is  held  with  the  edge  towards  the  worker.  The 
stitch  is  started  with  a  few  running  stitches  and  the  needle 
brought  up  close  to  the  edge.  Hold  the  thread  under  left 


EMBROIDERY  261 

thumb  and  insert  the  needle  at  the  depth  desired,  carrying 
needle  up  under  edge  and  through  the  loop  thus  made.  The 
thread  should  lie  along  the  edge.  This  stitch  can  be  varied 
to  form  ascending  and  descending  groups  or  made  all  of  one 
depth.  For  scalloped  edges,  which  can  be  marked  with  a  spool, 
it  is  wise  to  pad  the  scallop  before  using  blanket  stitch  unless 
the  thread  used  is  very  heavy.  For  padding,  especially  on 
flannel,  run  the  outline  of  the  scallop  with  small  running 
stitch  and  near  edge  of  scallop  make  one  row  of  chain  stitches. 
The  blanket  stitch  is  made  over  this  padding,  and  the 
stitches  are  taken  close  together.  Blanket  stitch  for  blanket 
edge  or  other  decorative  purposes  can  be  taken  with  spaces 
between  stitches.  This  is  a  very  useful  and  durable  edge  for 
towels  or  table  linen.  See  Figure  117  for  use  of  stitch  for 
scalloping.  See  Figure  118  for  other  uses  of  blanket  stitch. 
Featherstitching  is  one  of  the  most  useful  for  purposes 
of  ornamentation,  and  makes  a  beautiful  and  simple  trim- 
ming. It  is  made  in  several  varieties  and  is  used  to  outline 
designs  or  in  straight  rows  as  at  the  top  of  a  hem  to  hold 
it  in  place.  It  can  be  made  with  any  kind  or  weight  of  thread 
in  same  or  contrasting  colors.  When  daintily  made  with 
white  D.M.C.  cotton,  it  is  very  effective  on  baby  dresses  and 
fine  lingerie.  While  learning  the  stitch  it  is  well  to  draw 
pencil  marks  or  to  run  in  a  thread  as  a  guide  if  the  practice 
piece  is  not  striped.  The  stitches  are  taken  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  line  alternately.  Bring  the  needle  through  on 
the  line.  Hold  the  thread  down  on  line  with  left  thumb. 
Insert  needle  for  short  slanting  stitch  to  left  of  line  pointing 
towards  right.  Draw  needle  through  so  thread  looped  will  lie 
flat.  Then  with  thread  again  on  the  line  take  slanting  stitch 
at  the  right  towards  the  left.  The  variations  of  stitch  are 
made  by  taking  two. or  three  double  or  triple  featherstitches, 
instead  of  one  each  side  of  the  center  line.  The  stitch  must 


262          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

be  done  very  evenly  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect,  especially 
when  used  on  curves.  (See  Fig.  117  for  application.) 

French  knots  are  very  often  used  with  featherstitch  for 
variation  and  additional  ornamentation  for  the  centers  of 
flowers,  and  for  filling  in  a  space  inclosed  by  outline  or  other 
stitch.  Bring  thread  up  through  cloth  in  the  place  knot 
is  to  appear.  Take  a  slight  backstitch  and  with  the  needle 
protruding  from  cloth,  wind  thread  around  needle  two  or 
three  times.  Draw  needle  through,  while  holding  coils  of 
thread  close  with  left  thumb.  Insert  needle  again  on  edge 
of  coil  in  same  place  to  hold  securely.  Pass  needle  without 
cutting  thread  to  the  next  place  where  knot  is  to  be  made. 

The  lazy  daisy  stitch  is  also  used  with  French  knots  and 
featherstitching  on  white  work.  The  stitch  is  made  by  draw- 
ing needle  to  right  side,  forming  a  small  loop  of  thread  and 
replacing  needle  in  same  hole.  The  opposite  end  of  the  loop 
to  the  hole  is  caught  with  a  tiny  overstitch  (see  Fig.  97). 

Outline  stitch  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  useful.  It 
is  used  to  outline  designs  and  the  stitch  is  taken  on  the  line. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  throw  the  thread  one  way  all  the  time 
in  order  that  the  effect  may  be  regular.  The  stitch  pro- 
gresses from  left  to  right.  To  begin,  draw  needle  to  right 
side  on  the  line.  Throw  thread  to  one  side,  take  backstitch 
on  the  line  with  needle  pointing  towards  worker.  This  will 
make  longer  threads  on  the  surface  than  the  short  back  stitch 
beneath.  Repeat.  When  the  stitches  are  placed  rather 
close  together,  the  effect  is  prettier  than  when  they  are  far 
apart.  (See  Fig.  117  for  application.) 

Cross-stitch  is  usually  worked  over  open  meshed  canvas 
unless  the  material  is  so  woven  that  the  stitch  can  be  regularly 
placed.  If  canvas  is  used  as  a  guide,  its  threads  can  easily 
be  withdrawn  after  the  design  is  completed.  This  stitch 
is  a  useful  one  for  marking  linen  (see  Figs.  117  and  119) 


EMBROIDERY  263 

or  underwear  and  for  fancy  work.  Baste  the  Penelo  canvas 
very  carefully  in  place  so  that  the  warp  threads  of  the  canvas 
lie  on  those  of  the  fabric.  The  stitch  consists  of  two  slanting 
lines  crossed.  On  the  wrong  side  the  stitches  may  be  either 
horizontal  or  vertical.  The  canvas  is  so  woven  that  the  cross 
will  be  made  over  two  threads  high  and  two  wide.  Bring 
needle  up  to  the  right  side  at  lower  left  corner  of  the  square 
that  the  stitch  would  form  if  inclosed ;  pass  thread  slanting 
across  the  warp  threads  and  take  stitch,  pointing  needle 
towards  the  worker  and  on  line  with  the  warp.  When 
thread  is  drawn  through,  a  slanting  line  of  half  the  cross  is 
made.  This  can  be  repeated  across  a  whole  row,  finishing 
the  crosses  by  returning  from  right  to  left  with  the  same 
vertical  stitches.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  all  the  stitches 
cross  in  same  way.  All  the  ground  stitches  should  run  in 
one  direction  and  all  stitches  crossing  should  run  the  opposite 
way  (see  Fig.  119). 

Herringbone  or  catch  stitch.  —  This  stitch  is  useful  for 
ornamentation  or  for  holding  down  flannel  edges  which  are 
liable  to  shrink  in  washing.  It  is  made  from  left  to  right 
and  resembles  cross-stitch.  While  learning,  a  thread  or 
line  as  guide  is  a  help.  The  catch  stitch  is  made  of  back- 
stitches placed  alternately  above  and  below  the  guide  line. 
The  spaces  between  stitches  should  be  the  same  and  the 
stitches  below  opposite  the  spaces  between  those  above. 
This  arrangement  causes  the  thread  to  slant  and  makes  the 
cross.  (See  Fig.  117  for  application.) 

Satin  stitch  is  used  on  all  kinds  of  materials  for  ornamenta- 
tion and  in  making  initials  on  linen.  It  is  an  over-and-over 
stitch.  Many  people  get  the  best  results  by  working  this 
stitch  in  a  frame  or  embroidery  hoop.  If  it  is  desirable 
to  have  the  stitch  high,  it  should  be  carefully  padded  with 
rows  of  chain  or  outline  stitches  running  the  opposite  direc- 


264          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

tion  from  the  final  satin  or  surface  stitch.  Padding  is  un- 
necessary if  the  thread  is  heavy.  The  needle  is  pointed  from 
right  to  left  of  design,  carrying  the  thread  over  and  over  and 
placing  the  stitches  close  together.  The  design  can  be  fol- 
lowed from  top  to  bottom  or  in  the  opposite  direction.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  place  the  needle  always  on  the  line  of  design. 
When  single  lines  occur,  an  outline  stitch  may  be  used  or  the 
over-and-over,  taking  only  a  small  hold  of  the  cloth  to  produce 
a  cordlike  effect.  This  stitch  is  used  a  great  deal  on  white 
work  and  also  in  colored  silk  embroidery  (see  Fig.  117). 

Hemstitch  is  made  after  threads  have  been  drawn  at  the 
top  of  a  hem  or  tuck.  Measure  carefully  twice  the  width 
of  desired  hem  plus  turning  and  draw  three  or  four  woof 
threads.  Then  baste  hem  carefully  along  line  of  first  drawn 
thread.  The  hem  should  be  held  in  a  vertical  position  over 
the  fingers  of  the  left  hand.  Place  needle  in  edge  of  hem 
and  draw  thread  without  a  knot  under  the  edge  of  the  hem 
as  for  plain  hemming.  Throw  thread  away  from  worker  and 
take  up  bundle  of  threads  by  passing  needle  under  them  and 
pointing  it  along  edge  of  hem.  Again  pass  needle  under  same 
bundle,  but  this  time  bring  through  the  under  cloth  and  edge 
of  hem  turned.  There  are  several  methods  of  hemstitching, 
but  this  is  the  most  simple.  Double  hemstitching  is  made 
by  catching  the  same  bundle  on  the  opposite  side.  The 
number  of  threads  taken  in  a  bundle  will  depend  on  the 
coarseness  of  the  material. 

Couching  and  applique.  —  Designs  of  contrasting  colors 
can  be  cut  from  the  material  and  applied  to  other  fabrics 
with  an  overstitch -taken  around  a  couching  cord  placed  at 
the  edges  of  the  figure.  Couching  is  also  used  around  the 
outline  of  designs  without  applique*.  The  cord,  which  is 
drawn  through  a  hole  in  the  fabric  made  with  a  stiletto, 
follows  the  outline  and  should  be  kept  perfectly  flat.  The 


Jr..    i    I     t_ JLJL-jft 


FIG    117  —Articles  showing  use  of  embroidery  stitches. 
265 


266  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

stitches  holding  the  cord  are  taken  from  right  to  left.  The 
needle  is  slanted,  and  in  taking  each  new  stitch  the  needle 
is  placed  directly  opposite  the  spot  where  the  thread  was 
just  drawn.  This  makes  straight  stitches  at  right  angles  to 
the  cord  and  holds  the  cord  and  edge  of  applied  material  both 
in  place  (see  Fig.  118). 

A  USEFUL  EMBROIDERY  EQUIPMENT 

Small,  sharp-pointed  scissors. 

A  smooth  thimble. 

Princess  embroidery  hoop. 

Embroidery  standard  for  holding  hoop. 

Needles  —  crewel,  round-eyed,  and  sail. 

Embroidery  magazines  for  designs  and  stitches. 

Carbon  paper,  perforating  machine,  stamping  powder. 

A  FEW  USEFUL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  APPLYING  THE 
ABOVE    SKETCHES   IN   COMBINATION 

Good  designs  are  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  get  good 
effects.  It  is  wise  to  prepare  these  with  the  aid  of  the  art 
instructor  and  suggestions  found  in  embroidery  and  other 
magazines.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  prepare  designs  es- 
pecially executed  for  the  placing  of  certain  stitches.  Designs 
for  dress  embroidery  especially  must  be  carefully  planned  for 
placing  and  stitch.  They  can  be  transferred  with  carbon 
paper,  or  if  the  school  has  a  perforating  machine,  the  design 
can  be  perforated  and  transferred  by  rubbing  stamping  pow- 
der over  it  and  then  pressing  with  a  hot  iron. 

1.  A  child's  bib  (see  Fig.  117).  --  This  is  made  from  a 
small  piece  of  huckaback  12"  wide  X  16"  long.  The  design 
of  tree  and  rabbits  was  first  transferred  and  then  outlined  with 
the  outline  stitch  in  dark  blue  D.M.C.  cotton.  Two  rows 
of  plain  outlining  form  a  frame  about  the  picture.  The  back- 


FIG.  118.  —  Articles  showing  use  of  embroidery  stitches. 
267 


268         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

ground  of  running  stitch  was  put  in  by  catching  the  surface 
threads  of  the  toweling.  Simple  featherstitch  was  used  to 
hold  the  hem  at  edge.  The  neck  was  bound  with  white 
tape,  which  forms  the  tie  ends,  and  the  neck  band  feather- 
stitched.  This  article  gives  practice  in  making  three  stitches. 

2.  A  simple  cover  for  porch  cushion  (see  Fig.   118)  can 
be  made  of 'Russian  crash.     A  strip- 1  yard  long  and   about 
16  inches  wide  will  make  one  of  good  proportions.     Hem  one 
end  with  \"  hem  and  other  with  1".     Fold  so  that  the  one- 
inch  lies  on  the  half-inch  hem.     Baste  carefully  all  around 
edge  through  two  thicknesses.     The  cushion  cover  should  be 
so  folded  that  the  opening  where  hems  overlap  is  four  inches 
from  one  end.     The  blanket  stitch  in  block  pattern  is  worked 
all  around  the  edges  on  four  sides  and  holds  the  two  sides  of 
the  cushion  together.     It  is  completed  with  snaps  sewed  on 
the  hems  and  can  be  stuffed  with  excelsior  or  feather  cushion 
for  porch  use.     Simple  table  runners  and  covers  can  be  deco- 
rated at  the  edge  with  this  stitch  in  same  or  different  arrange- 
ment.    The  cushion  in  illustration  is  worked  with  a  mercer- 
ized brown  cotton  (called  "Poseidon")  to  harmonize  with 
the  linen  crash. 

3.  Napkin  ring  (see  Fig.  117).  —  This  is  made  of  apiece 
of  white  linen  8"  long  X  2J"  wide  finished.     Mark  the  scal- 
lops with  a  thimble  or  spool  and  work  the  blanket  stitch 
close.     D.M.C.  embroidery  cotton  No.  25  can  be  used,  or 
finer  if  linen  is  fine.     Finish  with  loop  and  wash  button  and 
with  or  without  initials  in  cross  or  satin  stitch.      The  scallop 
can  be  run  or  stuffed  with  chain  stitch  before  scalloping  with 
blanket  stitch.     See  also  initial  on  towel  for  satin  stitch. 

4.  Towel  with  lace  insertion.  —  Large  towels  may  be  made 
from  toweling  24  or  27  inches  wide.      One  and  one  fourth 
yards  will  make  a  good  sized  towel.     Cut  from  each  end  a 
piece  7  inches  in  depth  and  full  width.     At  the  ends  of  long 


EMBROIDERY  269 

strip  hemstitch  one-inch  hems.  The  seven-inch  pieces  can  be 
turned  to  form  double  hemstitched  ends  of  two  inches  wide 
toward  bottom  and  one  inch  wide  toward  lace.  Put  together 
with  bands  of  crocheted  lace.  This  makes  excellent  practice 
in  hemstitching  (see  Fig.  117). 

5.  Three  guest  towels  (Fig.  117).  —  (a)  The  towel  with 
cross-stitch  lettering  is  made  from   a  piece  of  toweling  16 
inches  wide  and  27  inches  long.     The  hemstitched  hems  are 
1J  inches  wide,  and  a  row  of  drawn  work  f  inch  wide  is 
made  at  one  end  and  \  inch  wide  at  the  unlettered  end. 

(6)  The  second  guest  towel  shown  (Fig.  117)  is  made  of 
a  piece  of  striped  toweling  16  inches  wide  and  27  inches  long. 
The  ends  are  turned  with  narrow  hem  and  a  blanket  stitch 
taken  over  the  hem.  Stitches  about  J  inch  apart.  The 
crocheting  is  caught  in  this  blanket  stitch.  The  band  with 
crocheted  initials  is  put  in  in  the  same  way. 

(c)  Hemstitched  towel  with  cross-stitch  border  of  flower 
pots  (see  Fig.  117).  Huck  toweling  16  inches  wide  and  f 
yard  long.  Jenny  Brooks  patterns  and  colored  D.M.C. 
cotton  were  used.  Hems  at  ends  are  one  inch  hemstitched. 

6.  Linen  bag  with  cross-stitch   design   (see  Fig.  119).  — 
The  old-fashioned  smooth-finished  brown  linen  was  used  for 
bag  in  illustration.     A  piece  28  inches  long  and  10  inches 
wide  makes  one  of  good  proportions.     Simple  seams  sewed 
with  stitching  stitch  were  made  at  sides,  after  cross-stitch 
designs  were  worked  across  one  side  of  the  bottom.     Colored 
D.M.C    cotton   and  Jenny  Brooks    patterns    were    used. 
Measure  hem  for  top  two  inches.     Before  hemstitching  work 
row  of  cross-stitch  across  top,  placing  it  so  it  will  appear 
near  top  of  finished  bag.     Then  turn  and  hemstitch  so  no 
threads  of  wrong  side  show.     Line  with  batiste  of  cream-color 
so  that  the  seams  of  inner  bag  are  turned  in  towards  seams 
of  outer  bag.     Catch  with  hemming  stitch  to  the  hemstitch- 


270  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

ing  with  same  brown  thread.  Any  kind  of  cord  can  be 
crocheted  and  sewed  below  hemstitch  for  drawing  up,  or 
rings  placed  for  cord. 

7.  Table  runner  with  cross-stitch  border  across  ends  and 
sides  (see  Fig.  119).    Gray  tan  linen  If  yards  long  and  14 
inches    wide.      Hemstitch    both    ends,    allow   3-inch    hem. 
Jenny  Brooks  patterns  and  D.M.C.  colored  cotton  thread 
were  used.     Border  is  placed  near  the  edge. 

8.  Oval  centerpiece  with  applique   (see   Fig.  118).  —  This 
piece  for  library  table  is  of  a  good  quality  of  Russian  linen 
crash  worked  in  colored  linen  thread  and  with  pieces  of  colored 
linen  cut  out  and  applied  in  design.     The  pieces  of  the  de- 
sign are  held  in  place  with  blanket  stitches  worked  close  to- 
gether around  edges  of  design  in  an  irregular  and  regular 
height.     The  oval  is  18"  wide  and  27"  long.     A  narrow  hem 
was  placed  around  edge  and  a  very  close  featherstitch  in 
blue  linen  floss  used  to  hold  the  hem.     This  row  of  feather- 
stitch appears  very  solid  and  is  outlined  on  both  sides  with 
outline  stitch  to  make  a  band. 

9.  Waist  protector  (Fig.  117).  —  One  yard  or  square  of 
cheesecloth  or  silkoline.     Hem  turned  and  basted  all  around 
square  and  catch  stitch  used  to  hold  in  place.     Cut  hole  in 
center  for  hook  of  waist  hanger  and  bind  with  ribbon. 

10.  Memorandum    desk-pad    (Fig.    117).  —  Made    from 
brown  linen  with  design  in  chain  stitch.     The  cardboard 
back  of  the  pad  is  covered  on  both  sides  with  brown  linen 
overhanded  at  edges.     The  top  portion  for  holding  pad  was 
decorated  first  with  chain  stitch  and  the  edges  folded  over 
pad  at  corners  and  overhanded  to  the  covered  back.     The 
chain   is  worked   in   heavy  brown   linen   floss  and  pencil 
attached  with  a  crocheted  chain. 

11.  Book  cover. — Book  or  magazine  covers  of  linen  or 
crash  make  useful  gifts.     A  piece  of  linen  J  yard  in  length, 


FIG.  119. — Articles  showing  use  of  embroidery  stitches. 
271 


272  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

if  about  22"  wide,  can  be  folded  to  make  one  of  good  shape 
(see  Fig.  118).  Hem  all  around  four  sides  with  \"  hem. 
Fold  over  \\"  top  and  bottom.  At  sides  fold  about  2J". 
Overhand  lapped  ends.  Place  design  on  front  cover.  The 
one  in  illustration  is  of  gray-blue  linen  worked  in  two  values 
of  blue.  Stitches  used  are  satin,  outline,  and  darning. 

12.  Doilies     and     centerpiece     with     crocheted     borders 
(see  Fig.  118).  — Made  of  brown  linen.     Edges  turned  and 
basted  for  first  turn.     Turned  and  hemmed  for  second  turn. 
This  care  makes  good,  even  edge.     Blanket  stitch  is  made  in 
edge  of  the  hem  with  stitches  \"  apart.     Crocheting  is  caught 
in  loops  of  blanket  stitch.     An  easy  way  to  cut  circles  the 
correct  size  is  to  take  the  three  sized  plates  and  place  on 
cardboard ;  mark  with  pencil  and  cut  out  patterns. 

13.  Small   doily   (see   Fig.   117).  — Made   of  two   thick- 
nesses of  linen  for  asbestos  mat  between.     Design  in  outline 
stitch  in  blue  D.M.C.  cotton.     Centers  of  corner  pieces  of 
design  darned  and  outlined.     Blanket  stitch  in  linen-colored 
floss  at  edge  to  hold  two  pieces  together.     Narrow  lace  over- 
handed  around  edge.     Selvedge  is  used  on  one  side  of  lin- 
ing piece  where  it  is  left  loose. 

14.  Small  work  basket  (see  Fig.  118).  —  Equipped  with  pin 
disk,  emery,  and  needlebook  with  featherstitch  design. 

15.  Turnover   collar  (see  Fig.  117).  —  Design  worked  in 
satin  stitch. 

16.  Cushion  cover    (see  Fig.   117).  —  Two  circles,  white 
linen,  1"  in  diameter.     Scalloped  edges  with  blanket  stitch 
in  white  D.M.C.   cotton.     Initial  worked    in  satin  stitch 
(white).     Eight  eyelets  \"  spaced  evenly  f"  from  edge. 

17.  Linen  money  bag.  —  This  little  case  is  very  useful  when 
one  is  traveling.     It  has  an  inner  case  of  chamois  which  can 
be  replaced,  and  the  outer  covering  can  be  laundered.     It  is 
made  of  a  piece  of  fine  white  linen  8^"  long  X  4f"  wide. 


EMBROIDERY  273 

Hemstitch  across  one  narrow  end  f "  deep.  Hem  sides  with 
fine  hemming  stitches ;  hem  I"  wide  on  both  sides.  Shape 
the  other  narrow  side  and  hem  with  same  width  hem. 
Featherstitch  below  hem.  Fold  and  overhand  sides.  Place 
two  buttonholes  and  two  buttons  (see  Fig.  117). 

EXERCISES 

1.  Bring  from  home  samples    of    old    hand    embroideries    of 
grandmother's    time :  samplers,    lace    collars,    etc.     Have    school 
exhibit. 

2.  Bring  any  samples  of  old  textiles  with  good  designs.     If 
possible,  mount  for  permanent  school  exhibit. 

3.  Collect  from  current  magazines  good  designs  and  suggestions 
for    embroidery  problems.     File  in  classroom    in  systematic  way 
with  aid  of  household  arts  teacher.     Such  suggestions  will  be  useful 
for  the  whole  class  and  following  classes. 

4.  If  museum  is  near,  plan  trip  alone  or  with  class  to  see  old 
textiles,  laces,  and  embroideries.     Suggestions  may  be  found  for 
use  in  school. 

5.  Bring  in  trial  samples  of  five  stitches  described  in  the  text. 

6.  Plan  with  original  design  a  Christmas  or  birthday  gift  costing 
only  15  cents,  on  which  some  of  the  embroidery  stitches  are  to  be 
used. 

7.  Look  up  information  about  the  Bayeux  tapestry. 

8.  Trace  the  historical  use  of  some  of  our  common  embroidery 
stitches. 

9.  Describe  two  ways  of  transferring  designs. 

10.  Name  some  of  the  common  embroidery  flosses  and  threads, 
and  needles  for  carrying  them. 


DRESS 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
HISTORY  OF  COSTUME 

THE  history  of  costume  from  ancient  to  modern  times  forms 
a  most  interesting  study  to  one  considering  the  importance 
of  dress  and  the  adaptation  of  costume  design  to  the  in- 
dividual. Few  appreciate  the  fact  that  apparently  there 
is  "  nothing  new  under  the  sun  "  and  our  present  styles 
are  adaptations  of  the  dress  of  olden  times.  One  should  be 
able  to  recognize  in  modern  dress  the  styles  of  the  periods 
from  which  they  were  derived,  and  the  study  of  costume 
should  teach  one  to  apply  such  knowledge  in  attempting  to 
improve  modern  styles  of  dress. 

Much  of  the  knowledge  of  very  early  costume  has  been  ob- 
tained from  the  ancient  hieroglyphics,  paintings,  illumina- 
tions, and  sculptures.  The  old  tombs  with  their  designs 
have  furnished  a  great  deal,  and  we  are  indebted  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, Grecians,  Romans,  Early  Gauls,  and  Franks  for  much 
that  is  beautiful  in  costume.  Regular  fashion  sheets,  how- 
ever, have  been  in  vogue  only  since  about  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution,  so  this  history  from  books  does  not  date 
very  far  back. 

Egyptian  costume.  —  The  history  of  costume  of  any  coun- 
try is  always  closely  associated  with  the  history  of  its  politi- 
cal life.  The  Asiatic  conquests  made  Egypt  politically  su- 

274 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME 


275 


preme,  and  with  the  new  era  of  luxury  the  earlier  simplicity 
of  dress  gave  way  to  more  attention  to  the  outward  appear- 
ance. We  are  indebted  to  Egypt  for  good  color,  design,  and 
ornament. 

The  costume  in  Egypt  during  the  early  dynasties  was 
simple  and  the  material  very  coarse.  Hieroglyphics  of  that 
period  show  the  men  wearing  a  short  skirt  made  of  stiff,  coarse 
material,  which  was  practically  a  loin  cloth.  The  waist 
was  omitted.  There  was  some  variation  of  this  in  relation 
to  classes.  Among  the  upper 
classes  the  skirt  was  made  to 
stand  out  in  triangular  form 
in  front.  During  a  period  of 
some  two  or  three  hundred 
years  following,  changes  took 
place  and  the  costume  devel- 
oped. The  skirt  apparently 
lengthened  and  widened,  the 
materials  were  more  transpar- 
ent and  less  stiff.  From  the 
IVth  to  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty 
the  dress  of  the  women  was  a 
straight,  tight  tunic  of  diaph- 
anous material  kept  up  by 
means  of  braces  over  the 
shoulders  and  exposing  the 
breasts.  Servants  wore  a  short 
skirt  for  freedom  of  movement, 
leaving  the  upper  portion  of.  the  body  bare.  A  very  interest- 
ing fact  is  that  the  men's  costume  during  this  period  showed 
many  changes.  The  thin  material  of  which  the  costumes 
were  made  led  to  the  adoption  of  an  underskirt.  Beginning 
with  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty  a  distinct  change  may  be  traced 


FIG.  120.  —  Egyptian  costume. 


276         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

-  the  shirt  or  waist  was  added.  This  garment  opened  on 
the  right  side  and  had  a  sleeve  for  the  left  arm ;  the  under- 
skirt was  changed  in  length  and  the  outer  skirt  looped  or 
draped  to  show  it.  This  was  probably  the  beginning  of 
draperies.  During  the  XlXth  Dynasty  this  puffing  was 
omitted  on  the  outer  skirts,  both  were  often  full  and 
plaited,  and  about  the  XXth  Dynasty  panels  or  aprons 
were  added  for  ornamentation  (see  Fig.  120).  Garments 
became  more  numerous;  mantles  and  capes  were  worn  and 
flowing  sleeves  and  plaited  skirts  apparently  adopted.  Elab- 
orate headdresses,  made  necessary  by  the  great  heat  of  the 
country,  were  an  important  part  of  the  costume.  Their 
decoration  and  the  color  and  ornamentation,  which  included 
the  use  of  the  lotus  flower,  the  asp,  and  many  other  interesting 
symbols,  offer  much  which  is  beautiful  in  design  and  worthy 
of  adaptation  in  our  present  costume. 

Greek  costume.  —  The  Grecians  in  their  dress  improved 
on  the  ideas  acquired  from  the  East  and  adapted  them  to 
their  needs  and  social  life.  The  women  of  Early  Greece  wore 
rather  tight-fitting  waists,  —  somewhat  like  the  kimono  waists 
of  to-day,  —  with  full  skirts.  Illustrations  show  that  the 
garments  of  the  men  were  long  tunics  and  mantles.  When 
we  speak  of  the  "  Greek  dress,"  with  its  charm  and  simplicity 
of  line,  we  do  not  mean  this  early  costume. 

The  Greek  dress  of  men  and  women  did  not  differ  in  prin- 
ciple, but  the  women  made  certain  additions,  such  as  veils 
and  ornaments  for  the  hair. 

There  were  two  garments  in  the  costume,  the  chiton  or 
dress,  and  the  mantle,  called  the  himation.  The  Greek 
women  did  their  own  weaving  and  each  garment  as  woven 
was  complete,  for  it  was  worn  without  being  cut  and  sewed, 
simply  held  together,  when  arranged,  with  clasps  or  pins. 
Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  the  garments  were  all  sewed 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME 


277 


or  all  pinned,  or  some  sewed  and  some  pinned.  The  ques- 
tion remains  unsettled.  The  Doric  chiton  differed  from  the 
Ionic  in  being  simpler.  It  was  scant  and  fell  in  a  few  large 
folds.  The  material  was  rather  heavy.  The  Ionic  appeared 
more  elaborate,  for  it  was  made  of  much  thinner  material 


FIG.  121.  —  Grecian  costume  of 
mourning  woman. 


Courtesy  of  Liberty  Theater. 

and  a  very  large  oblong,  so  that  the  full-    FIG.  122.— Showing 

ness  arranged  itself  in  many  small  folds. 

The  general  shape  of  both  was  the  same 

—  rectangular.      The    Doric  dress    was 

about  afoot  longer  than  the  person  was  tall 

and  as  wide  as  the  distance  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  hands  with 

arms  outstretched.     The  foot  of  extra  length  was  folded  over, 

and  the  whole  piece  doubled  in  the  center  and  folded  about 

the  body.     It  was  pinned  together  on  each  shoulder,  so  the 


the  contrast  to 
Grecian  costume 
which  conforms  to 
lines  of  the  figure. 
Period  of  1885. 


278          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

garment  remained  open  on  one  side.  A  girdle  bound  the 
waist  and  the  fullness  of  cloth  concealed  the  opening.  If 
the  garment  was  too  long,  the  extra  length  was  allowed  to 
blouse  over  the  girdle.  The  Ionic,  while  the  same  shape,  was 
much  larger. 

The  outer  garment  was  cut  either  rectangular  or  square 
as  the  fancy  of  the  wearer  dictated.  The  women  usually 
arranged  theirs  more  elaborately.  The  regular  manner  of 
wearing  was  this :  the  upper  left-hand  corner  was  brought 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  tucked  under  the  arm ;  the  other 
upper  corner  was  brought  around  under  the  right  arm, 
draped  across  the  body,  and  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder. 
This  completely  covered  the  body  and  permitted  only  the 
right  arm  to  be  free.  This  arrangement  caused  the  mantle 
to  fall  in  many  folds  and  gave  grace  and  dignity  to  the  figure. 
(See  Fig.  121  for  the  graceful  folds.) 

The  men  wore  their  hair  rather  long  and  the  women  ar- 
ranged theirs  in  a  simple  knot  at  tjie  back.  This  was 
adorned  often  with  diadems,  fillets,  and  jeweled  ornaments. 
The  head  covering  was  the  veil  or  a  part  of  the  mantle. 

Roman  costume  was  adopted  from  the  Greeks.  For  men 
the  tunic  or  undergarment  worn  was  somewhat  like  the 
Greek  chiton.  The  toga,  the  national  dress,  was  the  outer 
garment  or  mantle.  Women  wore  the  "  palla  "  and  "  stola." 
The  stola  was  a  long  tunic  with  a  dark  border  of  ornamenta- 
tion or  fitted  piece  at  the  bottom.  It  usually  had  sleeves. 
The  palla  was  the  mantle,  used  in  many  cases,  like  the 
Grecian  himation,  as  a  head  covering.  The  toga  for  the 
Roman  citizen  was  white  and  made  of  fine,  expensive  material, 
but  the  color  was  varied  for  generals  and  emperors.  It  was 
a  piece  of  woolen  material  generally  elliptical  in  shape  and 
arranged  somewhat  as  the  Grecian  himation  according  to 
fashion  or  the  taste  of  the  wearer.  The  outer  garment  of 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME  279 

the  poorer  classes  was  made  of  heavier,  more  somber  woolen 
material.  Roman  costume  was  more  ornamented  than  the 
Grecian  and  fuller  in  drapery.  In  55  B.C.  Caesar  conquered 
the  Gauls,  who  in  time  became  Romanized.  It  is  interesting 
to  trace  the  development  of  the  costume  of  the  early  Gauls. 
Their  painted  and  tattooed  bodies  of  early  times,  the  skins  of 
animals,  the  hip  aprons,  were  all  succeeded  later  by  the 
tunic,  trousers,  and  mantle  which  they  wore  when  conquered. 
If  they  became  Roman  citizens,  the  toga  was  permitted. 
Their  garments  were  rich  in  beautiful  ornamentation  of  em- 
broidery and  color  worn  with  a  great  deal  of  barbaric  jewelry. 
After  the  complete  conquest  of  the  Gallo-Romans  by  the 
Franks  in  the  fifth  century  and  the  establishment  of  the 
French  kingdom,  a  combination  of  Roman,  Gallic,  and 
Frankish  costume  for  men  was  adopted,  consisting  of  a  tunic, 
short  trousers,  leggings,  and  a  mantle,  the  last  varying  in 
size  according  to  use. 

French  costume.  —  The  eighth  century  was  practically 
the  beginning  of  French  costume,  and  among  the  higher 
classes  there  was  some  variety  of  dress.  The  women  wore 
two  tunics.  The  under  one  was  straight,  long,  and  narrow, 
and  the  outer  full  and  short.  Mantles  and  bands  on  the 
gowns  were  also  worn,  and  veils,  of  which  they  were  very 
proud.  The  costume  of  the  men  was  much  as  before. 
Jewels  and  embroidery  were  used  for  decoration  on  all  the 
garments.  Under  Charlemagne,  768-814,  there  were  edicts 
against  luxury.  Later  the  materials  worn  were  heavier.  Men 
wore  the  inner  garments  of  linen  and  the  outer  tunic  of  wool 
bound  with  silk,  and  the  mantles,  short  for  everyday  life, 
but  long  for  ceremony.  With  the  beginning  of  the  age  of 
chivalry  (eleventh  century),  silks,  cashmeres,  and  velours 
were  introduced  by  the  returning  crusaders.  Buttons  ap- 
peared for  the  first  time.  Men  adopted  garments  which  were 


280  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

long  and  full,  making  them  look  much  like  the  women,  who 
also  added  fullness  to  their  costumes.  Veils  were  shorter 
and  bands  were  worn  around  the  head  by  the  women. 

The  last  of  the  middle  ages,  while  the  Hundred  Years' 
War  was  going  on,  garments  were  more  fitted  and  often  made 
of  two  colors.  The  tunic  was  called  a  surcoat.  It  was  usu- 
ally made  without  sleeves  and  worn  over  a  closely  fitting 
under  dress,  which  had  long,  close  sleeves. 

At  the  last  of  the  fourteenth  century  came  a  period  of  lux- 
ury. The  garments  for  men  were  characterized  by  the 
doublet  and  hose,  the  latter  being  trousers  and  stockings  in 
one.  The  sleeves  of  the  doublet  were  large  and  often  reached 
to  the  ground.  This  century  is  noted  for  its  eccentricities 
of  dress.  The  very  pointed  shoes  and  high,  pointed  head- 
dress harmonized  with  the  turrets  and  towers  of  the  Gothic 
architecture  of  that  period.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  XI,  dress  was  more  simple  for  both  men  and 
women,  and  under  Louis  XII,  influenced  by  Queen  Anne  of 
Brittany,  dress  although  of  exceedingly  rich  materials  showed 
more  dignity,  simplicity,  and  charm  than  ever  before.  At 
the  death  of  Charles  VIII,  whom  Anne  had  first  married, 
black  for  mourning  was  introduced  by  her.  She  was  also 
responsible  for  the  close-fitting  headdress,  which  she  brought 
from  her  own  country.  The  French  costume  of  the  last  of 
the  fifteenth  century  was  characterized  by  the  use  of  rich 
materials,  bright  colors,  and  greater  dignity  and  grace  of  line. 
It  lacked  the  eccentricities  of  the  former  period  and  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  French  Renaissance,  which  bloomed  in 
all  its  glory  under  Francis  I  a  few  years  later. 

The  sixteenth  century,  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  is 
marked  by  a  great  change  in  dress.  Many  innovations 
were  introduced;  distinctly  different  garments  were  worn 
by  men  and  women.  This  period  saw  the  beginning  of 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME  281 

crinoline,  of  hoops  and  corsets  for  women.  They  wore  a 
chemise  of  linen,  a  corset  not  boned  like  the  corset,  of  to-day, 
but  made  of  several  thicknesses  of  heavy  material  fitting  the 
figure  very  closely,  a  hoop  of  heavy  canvas,  and  over  these  a 
bodice  with  pointed  waistline,  front  panel  to  cover  the  hoop, 
and  a  dress  or  robe  which  fell  in  tube-like  folds  to  the  floor. 
The  headdress  was  still  small.  The  men  wore  a  chemise, 
a  heavily  embroidered  doublet,  short,  full  trousers,  hose,  and 
a  mantle  with  big  sleeves.  The  garments  of  both  men  and 
women  were  much  slashed,  and  contrasting  colors  were  in- 
troduced. Henry  II  married  an  Italian  princess,  Catherine 
de'  Medici,  who  brought  the  corset  from  Italy ;  also  introduced 
the  ruff,  which  became  exceedingly  popular  and  was  worn  by 
both  men  and  women. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  II  and  his  sons,  Francis  II  and 
Charles  IX,  costume,  while  elegant  and  richly  embroidered, 
was  less  slashed  and  the  general  lines  were  simpler.  However, 
Henry  III,  aided  by  his  sister,  Marguerite  of  Valois,  en- 
couraged elaborate  dress,  and  many  men  adopted  feminine 
fashions,  wearing  enormous  ruffs  and  tight  corsets. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  IV  and  Marguerite  de  Valois 
the  hoop  skirt,  formerly  A-shaped,  was  changed  and  with 
the  aid  of  pads  became  barrel-shaped  and  so  large  that  the 
arms  rested  upon  it.  The  waists  were  smaller  and  more 
pointed  and  padded  and  puffed ;  sleeves  with  very  large  ruffs 
completed  a  ridiculous  silhouette.  The  corset  had  become 
a  true  instrument  of  torture,  as  is  attested  by  the  models  in 
museums,  and  very  small  waists  were  the  fashion. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIII  and  Anne  of  Austria  brought  a  de- 
cided change.  Spanish  fashions  replaced  Italian  ones  for 
women.  Hoops,  paddings,  and  ruffs  were  discarded  and  the 
costume  became  more  graceful.  The  overskirts  were  draped 
to  show  the  under,  and  bodices  were  no  longer  exceedingly 


282          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

tight  and  pointed.  Sleeves  were  large  with  deep  cuffs.  The 
collar  was  flat  instead  of  arranged  as  a  ruff,  and  the  hair  was 
done  low,  with  curls  about  the  face. 

Similar  but  more  elaborate  styles  were  worn  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Among  the  accessions  were  small  muffs 
for  both  men  and  women.  Gowns  showed  again  the  pointed 
waistline;  they  had  very  low  necks  and  short  sleeves;  no 
hoops  were  worn,  but  skirts  were  much  draped,  and  stiff  mate- 
rials worn  at  the  back  marked  the  introduction  of  the  bustle. 
Much  lace  and  ribbon  were  used  for  decoration  on  waists  and 
skirts.  About  1680  a  new  headdress  was  introduced  and  re- 
mained in  favor  thirty  years.  The  story  told  is  that  a  lady 
of  the  court  had  lost  her  hat  and  had  used  her  garter,  made 
of  lace  and  ribbon,  to  bind  her  hair.  The  king  complimented 
her,  and  immediately  her  example  was  followed,  and  an  enor- 
mous headdress  was  introduced  that  sometimes  reached 
two  feet  in  height.  In  1711,  just  before  the  end  of  Louis 
XIV's  long  reign,  hoops  were  again  revived  and  soon  became 
very  large.  They  were  called  "  pannier  "  and  lasted  until 
the  French  Revolution. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  characterized  by  its  grace. 
The  charming  "  watteau  "  costumes  and  the  lovely  pompa- 
dour silks  were  worn  with  the  "  pannier,"  which  constantly 
increased  in  size.  Gowns  were  much  decorated  with  lace, 
ribbons,  puffings,  and  flouncings,  but  lacked  the  heaviness 
which  had  marked  the  profuse  ornamentation  of  the  preced- 
ing century.  Beautiful  but  tragic  Marie  Antoinette  next 
occupied  with  Louis  XVI  the  tottering  throne  of  France  and 
became  absolute  queen  of  fashion  (see  Fig.  123).  Under 
her  sway  enormous  hoops  and  equally  enormous  headdresses 
were  worn.  The  watteau  fashions  were  still  in  vogue,  but 
only  for  informal  occasions.  Near  the  end  of  the  century, 
as  the  Revolution  was  beginning,  English  fashions  were 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME 


283 


adopted  —  the  waistcoat  and  redingote  with  triple  lapels, 
wide  collars,  and  large  hats. 

Fashions  changed  rapidly  during  the  ten  years  of  the  French 
Revolution.  At  first  styles  and  materials  became  simpler,  but 
with  the  Directorate  (1795-1799)  there  came  an  unexpected 
reaction.  Soft, 
transparent  materials 
were  used,  and  the 
Greek  and  Roman 
costumes  were  copied 
by  women  but  in 
an  exaggerated  way, 
while  the  men  wore 
large  cravats,  lapels, 
and  collars  in  imita- 
tion of  the  English. 
By  1799,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  con- 
sulate, the  ancient 
costumes  were  still 
being  copied,  but  in 
a  more  modest  way. 
Transparencies  were 
no  longer  worn. 
Shawls  were  intro- 
duced from  Egpyt 
and  costumes  were 

simpler  (see  Fig.  124) .  The  costumes  of  the  time  of  Napoleon 
and  Josephine  (1804-1815),  which  we  now  call  Empire,  were 
revivals  of  the  same  Greek  fashions  (see  Fig.  125).  The 
dresses  had  short  waists,  long  skirts,  low  necks,  and 
usually  short,  puffy  sleeves.  With  these  transparent  shawls 
were  used. 


FIG.  123.  —  Marie  Antoinette. 


284 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


The  period  of  1815-1830,  called  the  Restoration,  was 
marked  by  the  return  of  stays  or  corsets.  Fashions  were 
exceedingly  ugly;  street  dresses  were  long  and  ball  gowns 
were  short ;  both  were  elaborately  trimmed.  Hair  dressing, 
which  had  been  simple  under  the  Empire,  now  became  ab- 
surd, and  it  is  said  that  during  these  fifteen  years  10,000  differ- 
ent shapes  in  hats  and  bonnets  appeared,  all  very  ugly. 


FIG.  124.  —  Costume  of  period  of 
Louis  XVI.   Directoire,  1798-1799. 


FIG.  125.  —  Ball  costume  of  1800- 
1801.     (Empire.) 


Later,  gowns  were  cut  with  low  necks  and  long  shoulders. 
Small  waists  and  large,  bell-shaped  sleeves  were  in  vogue. 
The  period  around  1850  is  marked  as  one  of  luxury  and  ex- 
travagance of  rich  trimmings  and  materials  (see  Fig.  126). 
In  1854  hoops  had  returned.  The  polonaise  was  introduced 
with  triple  flounces  on  skirts.  From  that  time  to  about  1870 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME 


285 


there  followed  a  period  of  luxury  and  hideous  costumes  for 
women.  There  were  many  changes  with  flounces  and  wide 
circular  wraps.  Hoop  skirts  of  steel  and  crinoline  were  much 
used,  and  violent  color  contrasts  were  common.  By  1870 
skirts  became  smaller,  hoops  disappeared,  and  we  find  the  lines 


FIG.  126.  — Costume  of  period  about  1850. 

of  gowns  more  modest  and  dignified,  following  more  the  out- 
line of  the  figure.  Exaggeration  and  vulgarity  were  no 
longer  prevalent.  From  then  to  1880  dress  was  more  simple 
and  graceful.  Gloves  were  generally  adopted  and  materials 
were  many,  rich,  and  beautiful.  From  1880-1900  there  was 
greater  originality  developed  in  dress  and  more  good  taste. 


286          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

Bustles  and  pads  were  common  for  a  time  (see  Fig.  122), 
"  leg  of  mutton  "  sleeves  and  boleros  were  at  times  popular, 
but  it  was  a  period  of  improvement.  During  the  last  ten 
years,  dress  has  generally  been  simpler,  more  beautiful,  and 
in  better  taste.  The  changes  have  been  many,  but  the  novel- 
ties have  not  lasted  long.  More  intelligence  and  thought  have 
been  given  in  the  adaptation  of  the  best  of  the  costumes  of 
the  past  to  the  needs  of  to-day. 

Thus  we  have  a  story  of  progress  from  the  tattooing  and 
decoration  of  the  body  of  primitive  man  to  the  various  com- 
binations in  color  and  form  of  modern  dress.  The  tendencies 
of  other  generations  can  be  studied  in  dress  as  well  as  in 
architecture  and  language.  Certain  tendencies  in  dress, 
characterized  usually  by  flowing  robes,  have  been  noted 
in  days  of  peace,  while  girdled  garments  of  close  cut  were 
preferred  by  the  warlike  nations.  In  this  history  of  dress, 
color  has  always  played  an  important  part,  and  Southern 
Europe  has  in  its  dress  been  characterized  by  its  harmonious 
masses  of  color.  Rank  and  power  have  been  shown  by  dress  ; 
the  ladies,  the  cavalier,  the  court  fool,  the  judge,  the  monk, 
the  maid,  all  varied  the  styles  in  relation  to  their  posi- 
tion. The  ceremonials  of  royalty,  the  pageants,  and  dis- 
plays were  all  rich  in  color  and  variety  of  dress,  —  a 
constant  panorama.  In  modern  dress  many  individual 
distinctions  have  been  lost,  and  with  them  much  that  was 
beautiful  has  passed  away.  Intelligent  thought  and  art  are 
continually  reviving  from  the  past  styles  those  adapted  to 
modern  needs. 


HISTORY   OF   COSTUME  287 

EXERCISES 

1.  Of  what  value  is  the  study  of  the  history  of  costume?     How 
has  much  of  the  knowledge  of  early  costume  been  obtained  ?     Of 
later  costume  ? 

2.  What  were  the  characteristics  of  Egyptian  costume?     What 
use  is  made  to-day  of  Egyptian  contributions  to  costume  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  charm  of  Greek  dress  ?     Describe  the 
two  principal  garments.     What  was  the  Roman  toga  ? 

4.  Describe  the  innovations  in  costume  of  the  period  of  the  Ren- 
aissance.    What  were  the  styles  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV  ?     De- 
scribe the  changes  in  fashion  during  the  ten  years  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

5.  Trace  the  influence  of  Greek  costume  during  the  various 
periods  of  dress.    What  has  this  study  to  do  with  modern  dress 
designing  ? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
COSTUME    DESIGN 

The  importance  of  artistic  dress.  —  The  subject  of  dress 
is  one  of  importance.  Our  garments  are  not  a  meaningless 
covering;  they  speak  loudly  for  us  or  against  us,  not  only 
to  our  friends  but  to  the  most  casual  observer.  They  have 
the  power  to  make  us  look  conspicuous,  absurd,  undignified, 
and  to  magnify  our  physical  imperfections.  They  have  also 
the  power  to  make  us  feel  comfortable  and  at  ease.  The 
consciousness  of  a  costume  which  is  appropriate  and  becoming 
tends  to  lend  added  charm  and  grace  to  the  figure  and  develop 
an  ease  of  manner  that  enhances  the  individual  charms. 
Notice  the  lack  of  self-respect  and  charm  in  the  slovenly, 
untidy,  unbecoming  attire  of  some  women.  Garments  have 
also  the  power  to  caricature.  A  really  well-dressed  woman  is 
never  conspicuous.  Young  girls  in  learning  to  plan  their 
wardrobes  and  in  selecting  styles  and  materials  for  hats, 
gowns,  and  wraps  should  study  carefully  the  requirements 
of  dress  and  learn  to  adapt  the  prevailing  styles  to  their  in- 
dividual charms  and  defects.  It  is  worth  while  to  study 
the  modeling  of  the  face  and  the  lines  of  the  form  to  make 
the  best  use  of  our  possibilities  in  every  way  —  to  do  justice  to 
ourselves  in  the  selection  of  clothing,  in  personal  cleanliness 
which  is  beauty,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  hair.  It  is 
woman's  duty  to  be  as  beautiful  as  possible,  and  "  fine 
feathers  make  fine  birds  "  if  the  "  feathers  "  have  been 
adapted  to  the  lines,  coloring,  hair,  and  silhouette  of  the  in- 
dividual. The  costume  should  be  considered  as  a  beautiful 

288 


COSTUME   DESIGN  289 

painting  or  work  of  art  and  much  thought  should  be  given  to 
choosing  wisely  in  order  that  this  added  beauty  may  be  given 
to  friends  and  the  world.  Every  girl  has  an  individual  style 
that  should  be  studied  and  carefully  developed.  These  being 
the  facts,  we  should  use  intelligent  thought  in  making  our 
costume  serve  us. 

The  requirements  of  dress.  —  From  'the  artistic  standpoint 
the  first  question  to  be  asked  in  regard  to  a  costume  is,  does  it 
to  the  greatest  possible  degree  enhance  the  charm  of  the 
wearer?  Of  the  truly  artistic  costume  it  will  not  be  said 
"  what  a  beautiful  gown  that  woman  is  wearing,"  but  "  what 
a  beautiful  woman."  In  this  desirable  result  the  gown  plays 
a  large  part.  A  gown  may  be  beautiful  in  itself  but  so  strong 
in  its  color  or  so  striking  in  its  design  that  it  asserts  itself 
above  the  wearer  with  unpleasant  results.  Some  can  wear 
successfully  more  striking  costumes  than  others.  With 
colorless  hair,  faded  eyes,  and  an  insignificant  figure,  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  don  a  gown  that  will  cause  the  wearer  to 
sink  into  insignificance,  while  the  same  gown  on  a  woman 
of  strong  characteristics,  of  dark  hair,  and  strong  color  might 
keep  its  proper  secondary  place.  If  the  gown  keeps  a  sub- 
ordinate place,  it  must  be  harmonious  and  restful  in  color 
and  design,  for  ugly,  inharmonious  elements  attract  the  at- 
tention and  annoy  the  eye.  Before  selecting  conspicuous 
plaids  or  using  violent  color  contrasts  (which  if  used  in  large 
masses  are  usually  unpleasant),  it  is  well  to  consider  this 
principle,  bearing  in  mind  that  if  the  costume  is  to  be  pleasant 
to  look  upon,  or  if  it  is  to  hold  the  eye  pleasurably,  for  any 
length  of  time,  it  must  be  entirely  free  from  disturbing  and 
unrelated  elements. 

Unity.  —  A  second  point  for  consideration  is  that  of  unity, 
for  no  costume  will  be  successful  that  violates  this  principle. 
Not  only  must  the  hat  and  gown  have  unity,  but  the  woman 
u 


290          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

and  her  costume  must  be  so  closely  connected  in  a  fine  rela- 
tion of  line  and  color  that  they  are  no  more  to  be  separated 
than  a  bird  from  its  feathers.  In  whatever  nature  clothes,  we 
find  this  unity.  The  subordinate  relation  of  the  costume  to 
the  wearer  and  the  unity  of  the  whole  is  a  result  of  the  study 
of  art  principles ;  for  dress  design  is  first  of  all  an  art  problem. 
Like  all  objects,  costumes  have  shape,  lines,  dark  and  light, 
and  color.  When  these  are  finely  related,  we  have  the  artistic 
costume ;  when  not,  the  commonplace. 

As  the  outline  or  silhouette  of  the  figure  is  seen  by  a  greater 
number  of  people  than  the  lines  within  the  costume,  it  is  of 
first  importance  that  the  outline  be  pleasing.  The  human 
figure  with  its  matchless  lines  and  subtle  curves  possesses 
the  greatest  beauty  in  creation.  In  judging  the  silhouette 
of  a  woman  as  she  appears  on  the  street,  compare  the 
outline,  as  it  is  presented,  with  that  of  the  human  figure. 
While  it  may  not  be  desirable  that  its  lines  reproduce  those 
of  the  figure,  yet  they  must  not  contradict  or  falsify  them, 
but  be  in  harmony  and  all  "  sing  together."  In  the  outline 
of  the  costume,  the  lines  must  flow  rhythmically  one  just  into 
another  and  not  present  a  series  of  jerks  and  angles.  A  thin 
neck,  for  instance,  should  not  be  emphasized  by  the  de- 
collete gown,  French  necks,  and  Dutch  collars,  which  draw 
attention  to  the  hard  lines  of  the  throat.  ' '  Improvements ' '  on 
the  feminine  figure,  such  as  bustles,  hoops,  puffs,  and  pinched 
waists,  have  not  only  failed  to  add  either  to  its  beauty  or  grace, 
but  have  given  the  figure  a  silhouette  broken,  angular,  and 
without  rhythm  or  charm  (see  Fig.  122).  The  figure  must 
also-  present  a  balanced  silhouette.  In  this  respect,  too,  con- 
sider the  figure  itself,  remembering  that  it  is  created  for 
movements  and  must  preserve  a  balance  in  action.  As 
figures  differ  in  their  proportions,  the  matter  of  balance  is  an 
individual  problem.  Usually  a  small  hat  presents  a  better 


COSTUME   DESIGN 


291 


balance  than  a  large  one  when  worn  with  a  short,  close-fitting 
walking  skirt,  because  the  short  skirt  apparently  decreases 
the  height  of  the  figure,  and  also  because  there  is  insufficient 
width  at  the  base  to  balance  the  width  of  the  large  hat  (see 
Fig.  127).  The  large  hat  is  usually  best  adapted  to  the  long 


FIG.    127.  —  Showing  difference  in  balance  of  large  and  small   hats  with 

short  skirts. 

skirt,  which  adds  to  the  apparent  height  of  the  figure,  Such 
a  hat  is  even  better  balanced  by  a  gown  with  a  train  to  broaden 
the  foundation  of  the  figure.  As  the  first  consideration  in 
the  selection  of  a  hat  should  be  its  becomingness  to  the  figure, 
it  should  be  selected  when  standing  at  a  little  distance  from 
a  long  mirror,  and  when  wearing  the  costume  for  which  it  is 


292         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

designed,  in  order  that  the  figure  may  make  a  pleasing  and 
well-balanced  outline.  The  hat  itself  ought  always  to  appear 
to  be  balanced  on  the  head  both  in  shape  and  in  placing  of 
the  trimmings.  A  hat  with  feathers  or  other  trimmings 
massed  on  one  side  should  have  extra  emphasis  in  width  or 
in  turn  of  the  brim  on  the  other,  to  preserve  this  balance,  that 
it  may  appear  poised  on  the  head  and  not  held  in  place  only 
by  the  use  of  hat  pins. 

A  good  design  in  costume,  as  in  all  design,  has  a  fine  relation 
of  spaces.  The  surface  of  the  gown  is  broken  into  spaces  by 
lines  —  bands  of  trimming,  rows  of  buttons,  seams,  etc. 
For  an  artistic  result  there  must  be  a  plan,  an  idea  carried 
out  in  the  entire  costume  to  give  an  orderly  arrangement  of 
these  lines.  Lines  of  equal  strength  running  in  various 
directions  without  "  rhyme  or  reason,"  beginning  nowhere 
and  ending  nowhere,  will  never  produce  an  artistic  result. 
For  example,  a  gown  which  has  a  band  of  trimming  arranged 
in  points  on  the  skirt,  placed  horizontally  on  the  sleeves,  and 
in  a  curve  around  the  yoke,  presents  a  disorderly  design, 
confusing  to  the  eye.  If  the  band  on  the  skirt  were  placed 
horizontally,  corresponding  with  those  on  the  sleeves,  and  the 
band  outlining  the  yoke  omitted,  it  would  give  a  design, 
the  principal  lines  of  which  make  a  repetition  of  horizontal 
lines,  and  the  then  inconspicuous  line  of  the  yoke  would 
introduce  a  pleasing  element  of  difference  in  so  subordinate 
a  relation  as  not  to  destroy  the  rhythm.  The  merit  of  the 
design  would  depend  on  the  fineness  of  the  relation  of  these 
lines  and  of  the  spaces  made  by  them. 

Dark  and  light  "  value."  —  A  costume  of  black  and  white  is 
very  pleasing  when  well  carried  out.  Black  and  white,  being 
exact  opposites,  are  not  easily  reconciled,  and  a  "  spotty  " 
effect  is  frequently  the  result  of  their  combination;  as,  for 
example,  in  a  costume  where  the  gown  is  white,  the  hat, 


COSTUME   DESIGN 


293 


gloves,  and  shoes  black.  In  such  a  costume  the  eye  jumps 
from  one  spot  of  black  to  another  and  finds  no  resting  place 
(see  Figs.  128  and  129).  If  with  the  white  gown  were  worn 
white  shoes  and  gloves,  the  black  hat  pleasingly  trimmed 
with  white,  thus  carrying  the  white  into  the  region  of  the  black 


FIG.   128. — Spotty  effect.    The  eye 
jumps  from  one  spot  to  another. 


FIG.  129.  —  This  effect  is  more  pleas- 
ing and  is  not  spotty. 


and  that  of  the  black  into  the  white  by  perhaps  a  black 
velvet  bow  at  the  throat,  the  darks  would  then  be  massed 
near  the  face,  giving  a  spot  of  sufficient  emphasis  to  hold  and 
rest  the  eye.  Another  way  of  holding  the  black  and  white 
together  is  to  introduce  an  intermediate  step ;  for  example, 
a  black  skirt  with  a  black  chiffon  waist  made  upon  white 
gives  a  transition  in  "  value  "  from  the  black  skirt  to  the 
white  of  the  yoke  and  collar,  making  the  step  from  the  white 
to  the  black  less  violent.  An  intermediate  value  may  also 


294          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

be  introduced  by  a  touch  of  color.  The  black  and  the  white 
should  not  be  of  equal  areas ;  let  one  or  the  other  predominate. 
The  black  skirt  and  white  shirt  waist  may  be  improved  by 
a  black  tie,  the  two  spots  of  black  then  predominating 
over  the  one  of  white.  Pure  white,  although  distinguished, 
lacks  softness;  costumes  in  chalk,  oyster,  and  so-called  old 
ivory  have  a  soft  charm.  In  line,  in  values,  and  in  color 
it  must  be  made  easy  for  the  mind  and  the  eye  to  grasp  the 
intention,  the  plan;  they  must  not  be  forced  to  jump  from 
spot  to  spot.  Pleasure  will  result  from  a  restful  harmony, 
but  not  from  confusion. 

Value  in  color.  —  Value  exists  in  all  colors  with  their 
gradations  from  light  to  dark.  With  values  closer  together, 
the  contrast  is  less  striking  than  in  black  and  white,  and  the 
harmony  less  difficult. 

In  selecting  the  color  for  a  costume  consider  first  its 
wearer,  for  it  is  in  the  color,  even  more  than  the  design, 
that  the  appearance  may  be  improved  or  injured.  A  color 
should  always  be  of  sufficient  "  grayness  "  to  allow  the 
individual  characteristics  to  stand  forth.  This  grayness 
varies  according  to  the  strength  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
wearer,  but  it  must  always  be  sufficiently  dull  to  form  a 
background  —  a  setting  for  the  face  and  to  show  the  figure 
to  the  best  advantage.  This  question  of  color  is  one  of 
great  importance  not  only  to  the  wearer  but  to  all  with  whom 
she  comes  in  contact.  It  is  an  outer  expression  of  refine- 
ment and  culture,  and  every  girl  should  desire  to  have  this 
true  appreciation  of  color  harmony. 

This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  "  chroma,"  or  the 
intensity  or  brilliancy  of  a  color.  A  full,  intense  note  of 
color  is  the  strongest,  loudest  possible  expression  of  the  color. 
A  full  red  says  "  red  "  to  the  human  intelligence  as  power- 
fully as  red  can  be  said;  it  is  insistent  and  exciting.  Few 


COSTUME   DESIGN  295 

people  have  sufficient  vitality  to  stand  against  a  red  gown 
of  full  intensity.  Only  a  person  of  striking  characteristics, 
strong  personality,  and  a  small  figure  (as  the  mass  of  red 
would  then  be  comparatively  small)  could  hope  to  wear 
such  a  gown  successfully.  A  red  which  has  lost  more  than 
half  its  strength  —  a  gray  red,  a  dark  red,  or  a  light 
value  of  red  (pink)  —  can  be  worn  by  a  greater  number  of 
people,  as  it  intrudes  itself  less  forcefully  and  is  less  over- 
whelming. The  same  holds  true  of  the  other  colors,  only 
in  a  somewhat  less  degree,  as  red  is  the  most  aggressive,  but  it 
will  always  be  found  wise  to  use  colors  in  full  strength  or 
nearly  so  only  for  touches  of  color  on  a  gown  which  is  in 
itself  far  from  full  intensity.  Blue  is  a  retreating  color, 
cooling  and  quieting.  Because  of  its  retreating  nature,  blue 
is  adapted  to  larger  figures  than  red ;  it  is  also  suited  to  those 
not  having  pronounced  features.  It  will  be  found  that 
blues  which  have  lost  at  least  half  of  their  strength,  which 
do  not  say  "  blue  "  as  strongly  as  it  may  be  said,  but  rather 
suggest  blue,  are  most  interesting  and  becoming  for  the  entire 
costume.  Yellow  is  nearest  light,  and  in  combination  with 
red,  which  gives  orange,  out  of  which  come  the  browns,  it  is 
rich  and  warm  in  effect.  Green,  the  combination  of  yellow 
with  blue,  combines  the  characteristics  of  each.  It  is  light, 
and  cheer,  and  calmness  mixed.  It  is  restful,  soothing,  and 
hopeful.  More  cheer  will  be  found  in  the  greens  in  which 
yellow  predominates,  and  more  calmness  and  poise  in  those 
dominated  by  blue.  Violet  gives  the  combination  of  the 
exciting  quality  of  red,  cooled  and  calmed  by  the  blue.  It 
is  a  color  full  of  interest,  particularly  in  its  subdued  tones. 

Color  harmony.  —  In  determining  a  color  scheme  for  a 
costume,  think  about  the  dominant  color  and  endeavor  to 
bring  the  others  into  harmony  with  it.  Whatever  tends  to 
bring  colors  together  and  to  diminish  opposition  tends 


296         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

toward  harmony.  Harmonizing  colors,  like  harmony  of 
line,  is  a  matter  of  appreciation,  but  a  few  suggestions  may 
be  helpful. 

1.  Contrasting  colors  may  be  harmonized  in  a  subordinate 
relation,  i.e.  by  using  a  large  quantity  of  one  and  a  small 
quantity  of  the  other.     Example :   -A  violet  gown  with  a 
touch  of  gold,  or  a  yellow  gown  with  a  bunch  of  violets. 
The  more  subdued  the  tone  in  the  larger  mass  of  color,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  the  contrasting  color  that  may  be 
used. 

2.  Touches  of  black  will  help  to  bring  colors  together. 

3.  Combining  colors  of  low  intensity :  The  fire  opal  offers 
a  suggestion  for  a  pleasing  color  harmony  with  its  one  spot 
of  bright  color,  while  the  others  are  subordinate  in  tone.     A 
"  one    mode "   harmony,   i.e.    one   color   used  in   different 
values,  is  a  safe  harmony  to  use,  but  it  is  not  of  extreme  in- 
terest. 

To  emphasize  a  color,  a  touch  of  the  same  color  may  be 
added  in  another  part  of  the  costume.  Blue  eyes  may  be 
made  to  seem  more  blue  by  a  touch  of  blue  on  the  costume. 
A  piece  of  somewhat  faded  embroidery  may  be  brightened 
by  an  added  touch  of  the  same  color.  Another  way  of  in- 
creasing the  apparent  strength  of  color  is  to  use  with  it  a 
complimentary  color.  Examples:  red  and  blue;  green, 
yellow,  and  violet;  green  and  plum;  blue  and  orange; 
purple  and  yellow  green.  Violet  tends  to  make  yellow  hair 
look  more  golden,  care  always  being  taken  to  keep  the  violet 
of  sufficiently  low  intensity  not  to  overpower  the  color  in 
the  hair.  "  Red  "  hair  is  also  made  brighter  by  a  blue 
costume.  This  combination  should  be  sought  or  avoided, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  color  of  the  hair.  Greens, 
particularly  the  soft  greens,  are  very  pleasing  with  auburn 
hair. 


COSTUME   DESIGN  297 

Lines  and  colors  for  different  figures.  —  In  deciding  what 
colors  are  best  adapted  to  different  figures,  value,  intensity, 
and  the  characteristics  of  colors  must  all  be  considered.  A 
costume  is  occasionally  designed  for  a  special  occasion,  as 
are  stage  costumes,  when  the  background  against  which  it 
is  to  be  seen  is  known,  but  the  usual  costume  is  worn  on 
various  occasions  and  seen  against  different  backgrounds. 
The  average  background  is  of  about  middle  value,  i.e.  about 
halfway  between  black  and  white,  and  is  very  gray.  Black 
and  white,  therefore,  being  far  remote  from  gray  stand  out 
strongly  from  the  background;  black  calls  attention  to  its 
boundaries,  and  so  should  be  worn  only  by  those  possessing 
good  figures,  while  white  tends  to  make  the  figure  appear 
larger  and  as  a  mass.  Blue,  blue  green,  and  blue  violet,  if 
about  middle  value  and  very  "  gray,"  as  well  as  gray  itself, 
are  best  adapted  to  stout  figures,  being  retiring  colors,  and 
also  much  like  the  background  against  which  they  are  seen ; 
they  melt  into  it  and  so  do  not  give  prominence  to  the  figure. 
A  little  brightness  may  be  added  by  a  small  touch  of  brighter 
color  to  make  the  costume  more  becoming  to  the  face. 
Such  points  of  emphasis  should  be  used  through  the  center 
of  the  gown,  that  the  eye  may  not  be  drawn  to  its  bound- 
aries. It  is  generally  understood  that  vertical  lines  tend  to 
lengthen  the  figure,  and,  conversely,  horizontal  lines  tend  to 
shorten.  This  is  only  half  the  truth.  A  vertical  movement 
tends  to  lengthen  and  a  horizontal  movement  to  shorten  the 
figure  (see  Fig.  130).  Example:  a  gown  of  broad-striped 
material  may  add  to  the  height  of  the  figure,  but  it  will  also 
broaden  it,  as  the  eye  moves  not  up  and  down  on  the  stripes, 
but  horizontally  along  the  repetition  of  the  stripes,  giving  a 
movement  from  side  to  side  and  an  apparent  increase  in 
width  (see  Fig.  131).  A  band  of  trimming  on  the  bottom 
of  the  skirt  may  "  cut  off "  the  figure,  but  a  dozen  bands 


298 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


placed  horizontally  on  the  gown,  while  adding  somewhat 
to  the  width  of  the  figure,  will  apparently  increase  the 
height. 

To  obtain  the  greatest  effect  of  height,  place  the  longest 
possible  vertical  or  slightly  oblique  line  through  the  center 
of  the  figure,  with  no  points  of  emphasis  in  the  way  of 
trimming  on  outer  parts  (see  Fig.  130).  To  broaden  the 
figure,  emphasize  the  outsides  of  the  sleeves,  the  sides  of 


FIG.  130.  — The  effect  of  vertical 
movement  in  lengthening  the  ef- 
fect. 


FIG.  131. — The  effect  of  horizontal 
movement  in  shortening  figure  as 
eye  travels  from  side  to  side. 


the  skirt,  outer  parts  of  the  shoulders,  making  such  an  ar- 
rangement of  trimming  that  the  eye  will  be  carried  across 
the  figure.  Boldness  of  design,  conspicuous  color  combina- 
tions, large  plaids,  and  broad  stripes  tend  to  increase  the 
size  of  the  figure.  Quiet  color  in  dress  is  an  evidence  of 
good  taste.  This  taste  should  be  trained  early,  for  crude 


COSTUME   DESIGN  299 

color  habits  are  almost  inexcusable.     In  combining  colors 
the  aim  is  to  obtain  the  proper  balance. 

Fashion.  —  In  our  costumes  we  should  have  a  higher 
ideal  than  mere  fashion.  While  we  are  willing  to  think  for 
ourselves  and  to  express  our  ideas  freely  on  most  subjects, 
in  the  matter  of  clothes  we  too  often  allow  some  one  else  to 
do  our  thinking  for  us.  We  follow  the  fashions  blindly  for 
fear  that  we  will  not  look  quite  like  everybody  else.  To  be 
merely  fashionable  is  to  be  of  the  thousands ;  to  wear  artistic 
and  individual  costumes  is  to  be  well  dressed.  It  is  not  for 
the  benefit  of  womankind  that  the  fashions  are  made  to 
change  so  frequently,  but  to  enrich  manufacturer,  modiste, 
and  fashion-book  maker.  Fashion  is  also  governed  by 
traditions  which  determine  many  styles,  as  well  as  the  com- 
petition of  leaders  of  fashion  who  wish  to  display  their 
wealth  in  this  way.  The  love  for  adornment  and  display  in 
the  female  sex  —  the  desire  to  attract,  to  be  beautiful  —  is 
also  responsible  for  many  changes.  Each  generation  is  in 
the  grip  of  social  customs ;  we  submit  unconsciously  to  the 
survivals  of  style.  It  is  not  a  matter  to  be  treated  lightly, 
so  much  of  health,  comfort,  and  good  looks  depend  on  the 
garments  we  wear  that  they  deserve  intelligent  thought. 

We  are  frequently  unaware  of  how  much  our  clothes 
hinder  us  in  our  daily  tasks,  so  much  disability  comes  below 
this  level  of  our  consciousness.  The  full,  plaited  walking 
skirts  when  too  long  require  energy  better  devoted  to  some- 
thing else,  in  order  to  support  them.  Instead  of  mere  novelty 
the  attraction  offered  by  dressmakers  should  be  graceful, 
beautiful,  and  becoming  garments.  Change  we  want,  but 
let  us  accept  only  such  change  as  is  for  the  better,  either  in 
the  direction  of  comfort  or  beauty,  or  both. 

Simplicity.  —  A  discussion  of  costume  would  be  incomplete 
without  a  word  on  simplicity,  for  99  out  of  every  100  cos- 


300          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

tumes  are  spoiled  by  a  lack  of  it.  Simplicity  is  not  plainness, 
nor  stupidity,  but  the  intelligent  omission  of  the  superfluous. 
Being  well  dressed  often  means  knowing  what  to  leave  off. 
Every  bit  of  trimming,  every  line,  every  button  or  bow  or 
feather  either  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  costume  or  detracts 
from  it.  Because  one  band  or  bow  is  good  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  ten  are  better.  Imbecility  of  ornament, 
trimming  without  reason,  spoils  an  infinite  number  of  cos- 
tumes, but  every  bit  of  trimming  that  improves  a  costume 
fills  a  place  that  would  be  empty  without  it.  It  often  seems 
as  if  women  dress  and  purchase  their  costumes  without 
looking  in  the  mirror.  The  caricatures  are  so  grotesque. 
Stout  women,  wearing  gay  colors,  material  with  big  figures, 
large  picture  hats,  should  know  enough  to  avoid  anything 
but  the  most  simple  lines,  figures,  and  inconspicuous  colors. 
No  woman  is  well  dressed  in  a  costume  which  is  exaggerated, 
and  especially  when  it  verges  on  lack  of  refinement.  The 
too  scant  skirt,  the  very  low-cut  neck,  or  transparent  skirt 
are  all  forms  of  exaggeration  and  they  show  extremely  bad 
taste. 

A  study  of  beauty,  wherever  it  is  found  in  painting,  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  or  nature,  will  aid  in  its  appreciation  and 
so  help  in  its  application  to  the  costume.  Beauty  will  be 
found  to  be  not  necessarily  the  result  of  costliness  but  of 
artistic  appreciation.  Simplicity  may  help  in  selection  of 
costume,  so  that  the  mad  race  of  attempt  to  conform  to  style 
may  not  consume  so  much  time  and  energy. 

Appropriateness.  —  If  I  were  to  mention  a  woman's 
"  uglifiers,"  I  should  first  suggest  the  inappropriate  gowns 
and  hats.  Although  a  thing  may  be  good  in  itself,  it  does 
not  exist  alone,  nor  is  it  seen  alone,  but  in  relation  to  its 
surroundings.  A  girl's  light  blue  or  pink  satin  "  party 
gown  "  does  not  make  a  pretty  "  dress  up  "  street  or  school 


COSTUME   DESIGN  301 

dress.  Nor  does  a  big  hat  loaded  with  ostrich  plumes  make 
an  attractive  morning  hat.  A  girl  is  never  well  dressed  if 
she  wears  anything  which  is  too  ultra  for  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  she  lives.  That  which  is  appropriate  for 
the  formal  city  drawing-room  reception  is  entirely  out  of 
place  in  a  small  town.  Gowns  should  be  appropriate  to  the 
occasions  on  which  they  are  worn.  The  dress  of  linen  or 
other  wash  material  is  most  appropriate  in  every  way  for 
the  sick  room  or  the  kitchen.  The  business  girl's  dress 
should  be  simple  and  adapted  to  her  daily  uses.  Girls 
should  early  learn  to  criticize  their  own  clothing  in  relation 
to  its  appropriateness  to  the  time  and  place  in  which  it  is 
worn.  Another  "  uglifier  "  is  imitation.  The  shirt  waist 
made  in  imitation  of  the  more  expensive  waist,  of  coarse 
material  covered  with  lace  and  cheap  embroidery,  is  in  bad 
taste.  Far  better  and  " smarter"  is  a  plain,  well-tailored 
waist  that  is  all  it  pretends  to  be.  Other  imitations  to 
be  avoided  are  satins,  ostrich  plumes,  laces,  and  jewelry 
of  a  cheap  quality.  Uncomfortable,  untidy,  soiled  clothing 
is  irritating  and  does  not  make  for  good  nature  and  health. 
Clean,  appropriate,  neat  clothing  cultivates  self-respect. 

The  artistic  gown,  then,  is  appropriate  to  the  occasion  on 
which  it  is  worn;  it  is  of  good  material,  neat,  convenient, 
graceful,  healthful,  allowing  for  free  movement  of  the  body. 
It  is  free  from  superfluous  trimming,  it  is  restful  to  look  at 
rather  than  disquieting,  in  color  and  design  it  is  alluring 
and  persuasive,  not  self-assertive;  it  emphasizes  in 'every 
possible  way  the  charm  and  personality  of  the  wearer. 
Such  a  costume  requires  intelligent  thought  and  study,  which 
is  more  than  justified  by  the  result. 

Jewelry,  when  worn  thoughtfully,  is  adornment  and  often 
enhances  the  loveliness  of  a  face.  Selection  should  be  care- 
fully considered  in  relation  to  the  costume  with  which  it 


302  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

will  be  worn,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be  simply  a  costly 
display,  extremely  vulgar.  Not  only  the  costume,  but  the 
individual  charms  and  shortcomings,  should  be  studied,  and 
jewels  worn  that  will  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  appear- 
ance. Young  girls  do  not  need  jewels  to  enhance  their 
charms  when  they  are  appropriately  and  becomingly  gowned. 
Youth  is  charm.  Jewels  appeal  because  of  their  beauty,  and 
when  worn  should  be  chosen  in  relation  to  the  coloring  of 
the  wearer.  Many  of  the  semi-precious  stones,  although 
inexpensive,  have  true  artistic  charm  and  are  beautiful 
both  in  color  and  setting.  Such  are  entirely  appropriate 
for  girls.  When  the  correct  color  combinations  are  made, 
such  jewelry  may  add  just  the  brilliant  touch  needed  to 
complete  the  costume.  The  coloring  of  the  jewels  should 
be  in  harmony  with  the  gown  —  corals  with  salmon  rose, 
warm  grays,  and  yellows. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  is  the  study  of  modern  dress  important  to  every  girl? 
What  are  the  requirements  of  dress  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  unity  in  relation  to  selection  of  hat  and 
gown? 

3.  What  consideration  should  be  given  to  silhouette  in  costume 
designing  ?     What  is  meant  by  balance  in  costume  ? 

4.  How  is  the  surface  of  gowns  broken  by  trimming  ?     What 
principle  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  planning  the  decoration  ? 

5.  How  do  dark  and  light  values  affect  the  appearance  of  a  cos- 
tume ? 

6.  In  what  way  does  the  color  of  a  costume  injure  or  improve  a 
girl's  appearance  ? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  color  harmony  in  dress  ? 

8.  What  lines  and  colors  should  be  worn  by  a  stout  person  of 
middle  age  of  swarthy  complexion  and  dark  hair  ? 

9.  What  do  you  mean  when  you  say  a  person  is  "well  dressed "  ? 
10.  Simplicity  in  dress  should  be  the  ideal.     What  can  you  do 

to  achieve  it  ?     What  is  "appropriateness"  in  dress  ? 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE   HYGIENE    OF   CLOTHING 

THE  hygiene  of  clothing  is  very  important,  and  no  girl  is 
well  dressed  who  does  not  consider  the  relation  of  her  clothes 
to  health.  No  costume  can  be  really  artistic  if  it  is  un- 
hygienic, but  not  all  hygienic  clothing  is  artistic.  One  ele- 
ment of  art  is  adaptation  to  use,  and  all  clothing  should  be 
so  carefully  planned  and  studied  that  it  serves  in  the  best 
possible  way.  There  have  been  numerous  dress-reform 
styles  started,  many  of  which  were  freakish,  but  the  aim  of 
every  girl  in  relation  to  dress  should  be  to  evolve  for  herself 
something  simple  that  will  not  necessitate  an  undue  amount 
of  time  and  show,  something  pleasing  and  artistic  in  its 
adaptation  to  individual  appearance,  and  comfortable 
enough  to  permit  freedom.  During  the  girlhood  period  of 
adolescence  especially,  clothing  should  permit  this  freedom 
so  that  the  body  may  perform  its  functions  properly.  Few 
give  any  attention  to  it  or  realize  that  ill  health  is  often  the 
result  of  lack  of  thought  in  the  protection  of  the  organs  of 
the  body.  Heat  and  energy  are  generated  by  the  body  and 
are  necessary  in  order  that  the  machinery  may  run  properly. 
If  the  heat  is  dissipated  too  quickly  by  surfaces  of  the  body 
being  exposed,  there  is  a  waste  of  the  energy  which  should 
go  to  provide  for  the  necessities  of  the  body.  Very  thin 
stockings,  low  shoes,  low-necked  dresses,  scant  clothing  in 
winter  have  this  effect. 

The  purpose  of  clothing  is  primarily  to  protect  the  body 
from  the  cold  and  to  maintain  a  constant  body  temperature. 

303 


304  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

It  also  serves  as  a  protection  against  hard,  sharp  objects, 
although  decoration  is  the  most  powerful  and  controlling 
factor  in  the  selections  of  body  coverings.  Modesty  also 
affects  selection  of  covering  and  is  controlled  somewhat  by 
custom.  Clothing  is  healthful  or  non-healthful  in  form, 
pressure,  and  arrangement  as  controlled  by  these  purposes 
of  decoration,  covering,  and  protection.  Individuals  cannot 
entirely  ignore  fashion,  but  it  should  be  controlled  and 
adapted  to  healthful,  artistic,  appropriate  uses.  Pride 
should  not  be  the  only  source  of  warmth.  Selection  of  cloth- 
ing should  be  based  on  occupation,  conditions  of  health,  and 
requirements  of  age.  In  summer,  clothing  should  not  inter- 
fere with  the  dissipation  of  heat,  but  in  winter  it  should  pre- 
vent an  undue  loss  of  heat  from  the  skin.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  remove  wet  clothing  as  soon  as  possible,  and  to 
change  the  underwear  worn  next  to  the  skin  twice  a  week. 
Shoes  should  be  chosen  with  the  idea  that  they  are  to  be 
adapted  to  use.  Why  should  it  be  fashionable  for  a  woman's 
foot  to  appear  smaller  than  it  really  is?  The  wearing  of 
tight,  small  shoes  is  a  strain  on  the  body  and  foot,  and  women 
toddle  instead  of  walking  with  a  free,  easy  spring.  This 
deformation  is  as  bad  as  that  of  the  Chinese  women,  who 
used  to  bind  and  deform  their  feet  because  it  was  the  custom. 
Shoes  should  fit  the  instep  and  heel  snugly  and  should  be 
straight  on  the  inside  line.  The  heel  should  be  broad  enough 
to  balance  the  body  properly  and  the  soles  thick  enough  to 
be  impervious  to  dampness  and  substantial  enough  to  walk 
on.  The  toes  should  have  plenty  of  room  for  free  move- 
ment. Why  should  a  girl  try  to  wear  shoes  that  are  not  the 
shape  of  the  foot  with  which  nature  endowed  her  ?  It  is  not 
necessary  to  wear  an  orthopedic  shoe  if  one  has  normal  feet, 
but  common  sense  should  lead  one  to  bear  in  mind  the  above 
suggestions.  The  choice  of  foolish  footwear  leads  to  dis- 


THE   HYGIENE   OF   CLOTHING  305 

comfort  and  frequently  to  lack  of  efficiency.  "  Fallen  arch/' 
which  is  common  among  women,  affects  the  whole  nervous 
system.  Many  women  suffer  and  are  not  conscious  of  the 
cause. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  feet  dry.  This  is  quite 
essential  if  women  wish  to  keep  well  and  be  efficient.  It  is 
much  cheaper  to  buy  rubbers  than  to  pay  doctors'  bills. 
Rubbers  also  protect  the  shoes  and  prevent  the  thread  from 
rotting  through  being  water  soaked. 

Hats  and  hair.  —  The  use  of  false  hair  is  not  now  as  prev- 
alent as  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  It  is  fast  falling  into  dis- 
use by  those  who  wish  to  preserve  health.  Many  diseases 
are  communicated  through  it.  Eczema,  smallpox,  and 
dandruff  have  been  traced  to  false  hair.  The  undue  warmth 
resulting  from  false  hair  also  affects  the  head  and  causes  the 
natural  hair  to  fall  out.  When  one's  hair  begins  to  grow 
thin,  a  physician  whose  specialty  is  dermatology  should  be 
consulted.  It  is  often  the  result  of  general  ill  health  or  from 
wearing  the  hat  so  much  that  the  circulation  is  restricted 
and  the  head  not  sufficiently  ventilated.  A  good  tonic  is 
to  brush  the  hair  every  night  with  at  least  one  hundred 
strokes.  This  keeps  the  hair  in  good  condition  when  one 
is  in  normal  health. 

Hats  when  too  large  or  heavy  affect  health.  Much  ner- 
vousness in  women  is  due  to  the  continuous  expenditure  of 
energy  in  balancing  large,  heavy  hats,  and  sometimes  the 
body  comes  to  have  an  unnatural  position  because  of  the 
effort  to  balance  and  maintain  the  poise.  A  hat  should  rest 
lightly  on  the  head  and  be  large  enough  in  head  size  to 
permit  freedom  of  circulation. 

The  corset.  —  Few  young  girls  appreciate  the  necessity 
for  careful  consideration  in  the  selection  of  the  first  corset 
or  corset  waist,  The  test  for  such  a  garment  is  that  it 
x 


306 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


should  leave  no  marks  on  the  body.  Corsets  cause  an 
atrophy  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  if  not  properly  fitted 
interfere  seriously  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and 
cause  displacement  of  the  viscera  —  when  lacing  is  resorted 
to,  the  thorax  is  deformed  and  "  uglified.'7  These  displace- 
ments, caused  by  ignorance,  lead  to  the  ill  health  and  ineffi- 
ciency of  about  one  half  of  the  women.  Corsets  which  give 

the  figure  an  hour- 
glass effect  cause 
pressure  in  the  wrong 
place  and  do  not  per- 
mit of  deep  abdomi- 
nal breathing,  which 
is  essential  to  health. 
Any  waist  or  corset 
may  be  unhygienic  if 
it  causes  a  downward 
pressure  at  the  waist. 
The  corset  or  waist 
should  press  upward, 
supporting  the  ab- 
dominal viscera.  All 
bands  about  the  hips 
or  waist  should  be 
over  the  corset. 
Tight  bands  or  cor- 
sets interfere  with  the 

circulation  and  cut  off  the  supply  of  blood  needed  by  the  brain 
and  internal  organs.  The  corset  should  fit  snugly  over  the 
hips,  but  allow  plenty  of  freedom  at  the  waistline.  Garters 
attached  to  corsets  should  not  be  so  tight  as  to  interfere  with 
the  circulation  or  bear  downward.  .The  corset  should  be 
fitted  to  support  the  organs.  Most  girls  wish  to  preserve 


FIG.  132.  —  The  victory  of  Samothrace. 


THE   HYGIENE   OF   CLOTHING  307 

the  lithe,  graceful  waistline  with  which  nature  has  endowed 
them.  Notice  the  beautiful  hip  and  waist  curves  of  the 
Venus  de  Milo,  or  the  Winged  Victory  of  Samothrace.  Are 
they  not  more  beautiful  and  artistic  than  the  corset-made 
lines?  Girls  can  preserve  this  vigorous,  graceful  form 
through  proper  exercise  of  the  muscles  at  the  natural  joint 
—  the  waist.  Fat  easily  accumulates  around  the  waist 
muscles,  and  proper  exercise  and  plenty  of  it  will  prevent 
this.  The  corset  does  not  prevent  this  accumulation. 
Tennis,  golf,  gardening,  hoeing,  sweeping,  horseback  riding, 
mountain  climbing,  walking,  all  help  to  prevent  the  exces- 
sive development  of  fatty  tissue.  The  waist  may  not  then 
with  proper  development  be  called  slender,  but  it  is  lithe 
and  graceful  like  the  beautiful  ideals  of  the  "  Venus  "  or 
"Victory"  (see  Fig.  132). 

Underwear.  —  Fatigue  and  ill  health  are  often  due  to 
weight  of  clothing  and  to  restriction  of  skin  ventilation  and 
circulation  caused  by  certain  fabrics.  There  is  a  close  rela- 
tion between  the  regulation  of  bodily  temperature  and  the 
texture  and  fibers  of  materials.  Clothing  should  be  adapted 
to  climate  and  conditions  under  which  it  is  worn.  Under- 
wear coming  next  to  the  skin  should  be  coarse  in  mesh  to 
give  plenty  of  air  space,  and  should  be  easily  cleansed.  In 
the  selection  of  underwear  these  hygienic  properties  of  ma- 
terials should  be  studied. 

Life  produces  heat;  the  average  human  body,  even  at 
rest,  produces  enough  heat  daily  to  raise  forty  pints  of  water 
from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point,  and  with  exercise  the 
heat  production  is  greatly  increased.  The  body  must  keep 
an  even  temperature  to  be  in  health.  This  temperature  is 
98°  F.,  and  some  heat  must  constantly  be  eliminated.  The 
elimination  of  body  heat  is  accomplished  by  radiation, 
evaporation,  and  conduction.  More  than  half  is  lost  by 


308  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

radiation.  The  air  and  clothing  surrounding  the  body  cease 
to  be  cooler  when  the  temperature  is  high,  as  in  excessive 
summer  heat;  the  radiation  from  the  body  ceases  and 
evaporation  of  perspiration  takes  place.  When  the  air  is 
very  humid,  evaporation  is  slow;  when  dry,  evaporation 
takes  place  more  quickly  and  bodily  heat  is  reduced.  Con- 
sequently, an  excess  of  dry  heat  can  be  endured,  while  moist 
heat  is  oppressive.  Conduction  of  bodily  heat  is  favored 
when  there  is  velocity  of  the  air  current  and  moisture.  The 
wind  in  drying  the  moisture  cools  the  underlying  surfaces. 
This  is  the  reason  why  very  cold  weather  is  so  keenly  felt 
in  a  moist  climate  and  not  as  keenly  in  a  dry  one. 

The  clothing  worn  is  for  protection  against  the  changes 
in  temperature,  in  velocity  of  air,  and  in  humidity,  and  should 
be  so  constructed  that  there  is  no  interference  with  elimina- 
tion of  bodily  heat  nor  too  much  elimination  when  it  is 
necessary  to  conserve  this  heat. 

The  body  loses  about  three  pints  of  water  in  twenty-four 
hours  through  evaporation ;  humidity  does  not  favor  evapora- 
tion, consequently  clothing  which  absorbs  and  retains  much 
moisture  is  not  as  healthful  as  that  which  eliminates  it  more 
quickly.  This  process  of  absorption  and  elimination  differs 
in  various  fabrics.  It  is  quicker  in  linen  than  in  other  fabrics. 
Wool  on  a  dry  body,  as  on  old  people  or  on  those  who  do  not 
exercise  very  freely,  feels  warm  and  continues  so  as  long  as 
the  evaporation  of  the  skin  is  not  in  excess  of  the  power  of 
the  woolen  garment  to  absorb  and  eliminate  it.  If  through 
physical  exercise  the  amount  of  moisture  is  increased  and 
the  wool  does  not  absorb  it  as  fast  as  it  is  excreted,  the  air 
about  the  body  will  be  moisture  laden  and  evaporation  inter- 
fered with.  A  bodily  feeling  of  oppression  will  follow,  due 
to  the  retention  of  the  heat.  Moisture  and  velocity  of  air 
favor  conduction  of  heat ;  therefore  if  the  body  is  exposed  to  a 


THE   HYGIENE   OF   CLOTHING  309 

draught  under  above  conditions,  the  bodily  temperature  may 
be  reduced  too  quickly. 

Elimination  of  heat  takes  place  when  the  materials  conduct 
it.  The  protection  against  too  great  elimination  is  favored 
by  the  porosity  of  materials.  Air  in  the  meshes  offers  this 
protection,  for  a  still  layer  of  air  is  not  a  good  conductor  of 
heat.  A  loosely  knitted  shawl  is  warmer  under  certain  con- 
ditions than  one  which  is  more  compact.  The  air  spaces 
are  ventilators  as  well  as  non-conductors.  Two  light-weight 
garments  are  warmer  than  one  heavier  one  because  of  the 
layer  of  air  between.  Wool  and  flax  both  conduct  heat, 
but  wool  more  slowly.  Porous  wool  feels  warmer  than  a 
plain  linen  next  to  the  skin.  The  radiation  is  about  the 
same  in  both  when  the  linen  is  made  of  the  same  porosity 
and  air  capacity  as  the  wool.  Wool  is  warm  and  irritating 
to  many  people.  It  is  not  as  cleanly  as  some  fabrics,  for  it 
absorbs  the  bodily  excretions,  and  is  not  easily  laundered. 
As  it  felts  in  shrinking,  the  air  space  between  meshes  is 
lessened.  Loosely  woven  or  knitted  underwear  with  large 
air  spaces  is  more  hygienic  than  the  closely  woven.  Many 
cotton  garments  are  now  woven  loosely  and  so  treated  in 
manufacture  that  they  absorb  easily.  Outing  flannel  with 
its  large  air  spaces  is  consequently  warm,  but  the  ordinary 
kind  is  dangerous  for  underwear  because  it  burns  so  easily.1 
Peasants  and  some  explorers  in  the  far  north  wear  next 
to  the  skin  linen  of  a  porous  variety;  others  wear  wool. 
Some  Eskimos  wear  cotton  shirts  under  their  furs.  Silk  as 
underwear  is  very  pleasing  and  luxurious  but  too  costly  for 
most  people.  A  combination  of  silk  and  wool  is  excellent 
but  expensive.  Silk  and  wool  because  of  their  physical 

1 A  method  for  the  permanent  fireproofing  of  cotton  goods  has  been  devel- 
oped, but  is  not  yet  commonly  applied.  Persistent  inquiry  on  the  part  of 
consumers  will  greatly  aid  the  introduction  of  this  important  improvement. 


310          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

structure  are  able  to  care  for  the  excretions  and  perspiration. 
Silk  is  more  easily  cleansed  than  wool.  The  great  argument 
for  wool  is  that  evaporation  is  slow,  and  there  is  not  the 
same  danger  as  in  rapid  evaporation  through  cotton  and 
linen  of  an  undue  reduction  of  bodily  temperature.  The 
selection  of  the  kind  of  underwear  will  depend  on  conditions 
of  health,  climate,  occupation,  and  age.  Each  must  study 
those  conditions  and  experiment  until  the  most  comfortable 
and  satisfactory  has  been  found.  Union  suits  are  by  some 
considered  more  hygienic  because  an  even  layer  of  clothing 
covers  the  body  instead  of  an  uneven  when  the  vest  and 
underdrawers  overlap  about  the  abdomen.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  extra  warmth  around  the  abdomen  is  often 
beneficial,  some  people  finding  it  necessary  to  wear  a  flannel 
band  in  addition  to  the  usual  underclothing. 

The  outer  garments  for  protection  should  be  rather  closely 
woven  so  that  the  wind  cannot  penetrate  and  conduct  the 
heat  too  rapidly.  Heavy  garments  are  a  great  burden  and 
prevent  freedom  of  action  and  efficiency. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  purposes  of  clothing?     How  is  health  affected 
by  bodily  covering  ? 

2.  What  controlling  ideas  should  guide  one  in  the  selection  of 
shoes  ?     Why  should  the  feet  be  kept  dry  ? 

3.  How  may  hats  and  false  hair  affect  health  ? 

4.  The  corset  is  important.     How  should  it  be  tested  in  selec- 
tion? 

5.  What  should  guide  one  in  the  choice  of  underwear  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE    ECONOMICS   OF   DRESS 

MANY  of  the  problems  that  confront  the  shopper  are  to 
be  considered  in  the  chapter  on  purchasing  of  household 
material  (see  Book  II).  There  are  a  few  things,  however, 
that  should  be  especially  considered  in  the  selection  of 
materials  for  gowns.  (1)  A  careful  study  of  the  whole  ward- 
robe is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  kind  and  number 
of  gowns  needed.  This  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  money 
one  can  afford  to  spend  for  clothes  and  on  the  needs  of  the 
person ;  in  other  words,  the  social  demands  of  the  community 
and  the  individual  life  of  the  girl.  One  engaged  in  business 
life  will  have  different  needs  from  the  one  who  is  the  home 
maker.  The  first  things  to  consider  then  in  selection  of 
materials  are  suitability  and  economy.  It  is  more  economical 
and  advantageous  to  the  woman  of  moderate  income  to  do 
her  shopping  between  seasons.  If  your  income  is  limited, 
never  buy  things  unless  there  is  a  particular  need.  Evening 
wraps  lined  with  white  satin  are  not  apt  to  be  economical 
expenditures  for  a  woman  of  moderate  means. 

(2)  After  the  use  has  been  determined  and  one  knows  the 
amount  that  can  be  expended,  the  selection  of  material  for  the 
gown  should  be  appropriate  to  that  use.     It  is  inappropriate  to 
wear  silks  and  satins  for  work  dresses  about  the  house,  neither 
would  one  select  for  street  or  business  wear  materials  which 
are  suitable  only  for  reception  or  evening  gowns. 

(3)  One   must   also    consider   in   selection   whether   one 
wishes  to  follow  the  demand  of  fashion  and  have  new  gar- 

311 


312          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

ments  to  meet  the  changes  every  few  months.  To  do  this, 
if  one  has  a  large  amount  to  spend  on  clothing,  good  ma- 
terials can  be  purchased ;  otherwise  one  must  choose  inexpen- 
sive ones  and  give  no  attention  to  the  wearing  qualities. 
If  one  attempts  to  follow  the  fads  of  fashion,  there  is  likely 
to  be  undue  extravagance.  Exaggerated  styles  are  not  only 
conspicuous  but  short  lived.  If  one's  clothes  must  be  worn 
for  some  time  and  remade,  then  the  wearing  qualities  of 
materials  should  be  carefully  considered.  A  knowledge  of 
textile  materials  and  of  their  manufacture  will  be  of  value  hi 
selection.  If  one  dresses  conservatively  and  is  not  influenced 
by  the  frequent  changes  of  fashion,  one  can  afford  better 
materials.  This  is  usually  a  more  economical  method  of 
dressing,  and  one  is  apt  to  appear  always  well  dressed. 

(4)  Color  and  design,  as  have  already  been  suggested,  must 
be  borne  in  mind.  Color  should  suit  the  individual  and  be 
pleasing  to  others ;  and  design  should  suit  one's  figure  and 
style. 

The  allowance  and  dress  budget.  —  Many  girls  have  an 
allowance  to  spend  for  dress.  Some  do  not  have  to  consider 
their  expenses,  and  the  bills  are  paid  by  father  or  mother. 
Others  are  engaged  in  business  and  anxious  to  make  the 
amount  of  the  income  that  can  be  spent  on  dress  go  as  far 
as  possible.  It  will  be  found  worth  while  for  every  girl  to 
keep  a  systematic  account  of  her  expenditures  for  clothing, 
whether  she  earns  the  money  for  it  or  not  (see  chapter 
on  Household  Accounts,  Book  II.)  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  one  should  early  form  the  habit  of  planning  and  ex- 
pending so  as  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  wearing  value 
and  satisfaction  in  return.  When  one  does  not  know  the 
amount  that  may  be  spent,  one  cannot  weigh  the  relative 
satisfaction  of  different  articles,  but  even  without  this  knowl- 
edge, every  girl  will  feel  repaid  to  keep  such  accounts  for  a 


THE   ECONOMICS   OF   DRESS  313 

certain  period.  As  some  clothing  lasts  more  than  one  year, 
the  average  for  three  years  should  be  taken  to  obtain  the 
cost  per  annum  for  clothing.  One  should  also  remember 
that,  as  a  rule,  most  clothing  made  at  home  by  the  girl  or 
mother  costs  less  and  has  a  longer  period  of  usefulness.  If 
one  has  the  time,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  purchase  ready- 
made  garments.  Very  often,  however,  it  is  more  economical 
to  buy  the  ready-made  when  one's  time  is  well  occupied 
and  the  saving  of  energy  for  the  daily  work  must  be  con- 
sidered. The  following  budgets  for  expenditures  for  cloth- 
ing may  be  suggestive  and  help  those  interested  in  planning 
their  wardrobes  economically  and  healthfully.  A  girl  with 
a  limited  amount  to  spend  may  learn,  by  taking  thought,  to 
spend  that  sum  so  as  to  be  as  well  dressed  for  her  income 
and  needs  as  the  woman  of  unlimited  income  in  a  different 
environment.  The  care  given  clothing  has  much  to  do  with 
its  length  of  life.  Every  girl  should  feel  the  responsibility  for 
neatness  of  appearance  and  cleanliness.  It  costs  money  and 
energy  to  be  clean,  and  this  factor  should  be  a  guide  in  select- 
ing articles  of  clothing.  Some  women  have,  instinctively, 
an  inborn  sense  of  proportion  and  know  how  to  dress,  others 
must  cultivate  it. 

The  following  clothing  budget  gives  an  idea  of  what  a 
girl  can  do  with  $65,  if  she  makes  some  things  herself.1 

The  average  is  taken  for  three  years.  The  first  year  is 
naturally  the  highest,  and  in  the  second  many  articles  can 
be  used  which  were  purchased  the  first. 

1  Perchance  some  may  be  skeptical  about  the  possibility  of  purchasing  the 
following  articles  of  clothing,  averaging  $  65  per  year.  All  of  the  articles  men- 
tioned can  be  obtained  from  a  reliable  department  store  in  New  York,  at 
the  prices  stated.  Many  girls  can  spend  no  more  for  clothing.  The  writer 
knows  from  her  contact  with  girls  that  this  is  about  the  wardrobe  selected. 
Sometimes  gifts  supplement  what  the  girl  is  able  to  purchase  and  she  may 
appear  better  dressed. 


314         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

WARDROBE  —  COST  AVERAGING  $65.00  PER  YEAR 

Planned  for  a  girl  who  makes  her  own  dresses  and  waists  in 
spare  hours,  but  buys  most  of  her  underwear. 

FIRST  YEAR 

Shoes,  2  pair,  at  $3.00  .     .     .     .     .  \    ...     ....  $6.00 

Rubbers,  1  pair .     .     .     ...     .  .75 

Ties,  1  pair •     •     .     »     .     .     .     .-   .  2.00 

Gloves,  kid,  1  pair ...  1.00 

silk,  1  pair,  or  3  pair  cotton,  at  $.25      .     .     .    .v;  !  .75 

woolen,  1  pair »V  ••'**•'  -50 

Hats,  best  winter  hat ...    .    ,    .    .  3.00 

best  summer  hat 2.50 

2  business  hats,  at  $1.50 3.00 

Coats,  1  winter     .../..     .     .     .     ...     .     .     .     .  9.00 

1  spring     .     .     .     .     ...     .     .     .     .-.'..     .     .  5.00 

Dresses,  2  gingham,  at  $1.50       ...   ...     .     .     .     .     .     .  3.00 

1  cashmere 10.00 

2  cotton  shirt  waists .     .  1.50 

1  dress  skirt 4.00 

1  woolen  waist ^  .....  2.00 

Handkerchiefs  and  collars 2.00 

Hosiery,  6  pairs,  at  $.25 .     .     .  1.50 

Underwear,  3  union  suits,  winter,  at  $2.00 6.00 

3  union  suits,  summer,  at  $.50  .     ...     .     .  -  1.50 

3  pairs  drawers,  at  $.25 v-  .75 

3  corset  covers,  at  $.25 •«  .75 

2  pairs  of  corsets,  at  $.75 1.50 

Garters .^  .25 

2  flannelette  skirts,  at  $.25 ."  .50 

2  short  white  skirts,  at  $.50  ....  \    .     .  1.00 

1  long  white  skirt,  at  $1.00    .     .     .     .     .     .     .  1.00 

2  dark  skirts,  at  $1.00       2.00 

3  nightdresses,  at  $.75 2.25 

Umbrella  (gloria) 1.00 

$76.00 


THE   ECONOMICS   OF   DRESS  315 

SECOND  YEAR 

1  pair  shoes $2.00 

1  pair  slippers       1.50 

2  pair  rubbers 1.50 

1  pair  ties    ...     .     .     .  ..*  . 2.00 

1  pair  kid  gloves 1.00 

1  pair  silk  gloves .75 

1  winter  hat 3.00 

1  summer  hat 4.00 

1  winter  suit 16.00 

1  linen  suit 5.00 

1  lingerie  waist 3.00 

1  silk  waist 4.00 

1  gingham  dress 1.50 

2  cotton  waists 1.50 

Collars  and  dainty  linen     .     .     .     .     . 5.00 

1  dark  petticoat 1.25 

1  white  petticoat       1.50 

2  pair  corsets,  at  $.75    .     .     .     ....     .     .     .     .     .     .  1.50 

6  pair  stockings 1.50 

Elastics  . ..".'.'  .50 

Nightdresses,  2,  at  $.75 1.50 

2  chemises,  at  $.75 1.50 

2  drawers,  at  $.35 «     .  .70 

$6L70 
THIRD  YEAR 

Umbrella     .    .     ."1     . ,:    .    -,:  1.00 

Sweater 3.00 

6  pairs  stockings 1.50 

1  pair  shoes 2.50 

1  pair  ties 2.00 

1  pair  rubbers       .75 

Remodeling  hats        2.00 

Remodeling  cashmere  dress 3.00 

Organdie  dress 6.00 

2  gingham  dresses 3.00 

2  shirt  waists         1.50 

1  walking  skirt 4.00 

1  woolen  waist ....          ...  2.00 


316  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

3  union  suits $6.00 

3  union  suits 2.25 

Petticoats 3.50 

Chemise  and  drawers 2.25 

Corsets  and  elastics »     .     «     .     .     .     ..  1.75 

Raincoat 5.00 

Small  supplies .     . 3.00 

$56.00 
Average  of  $64.57  per  year. 

WARDROBE  —  COST  AVERAGING  $125.00  PER  YEAR 

A  working  girl  earning  $1000.00  spends  one  eighth  for  clothing, 

which    averages   $125.00   per   year.      The  first  year  the  budget 
aggregates  most. 

FIRST  YEAR 

4  summer  undervests $.25  $1.00 

4  pair  drawers 50  2.00 

4  corset  covers ..    .     .50  2.00 

2  pair  corsets ...     .  1.50  3.00 

4  pair  winter  stockings 25  1.00 

4  pair  summer  stockings    .     .  „ .     .     .     .     ...     .25  1.00 

3  union  suits  (part  wool)   .     .     . 1.50  4.50 

2  pair  high  shoes  .     .     .  '. 3.50  7.00 

2  pair  low  shoes 3.00  6.00 

2  pair  rubbers 75  1.50 

1  pair  sandals .50 

3  nightgowns        .     *     . 1.00  3.00 

1  long  kimono 2.00 

2  white  skirts 1.00  2.00 

2  seersucker  petticoats 85  1.70 

2  outing  flannel  petticoats 50  1.00 

black  petticoat 1.50 

wool  sweater 5.00 

rain  coat  (rubberized) 5.00 

umbrella  (gloria) .  .  1.50 

2  woolen  waists  (Scotch  flannel)  made  at  home  ....  3.00 

wool  dress  skirt •....».  4.00 

winter  suit 18.00 

1  silk  waist  to  go  with  suit  for  best 5.00 


THE   ECONOMICS   OF    DRESS 


317 


1  long  coat        $14.00 

2  winter  hats 8.00 

2  summer  hats 8.00 

1  simple  silk  dress  for  afternoon,  made  at  home     ....  15.00 

3  tailored  waists 3.50 

2  white  lingerie  waists 3.00 

1  Indian  head  dress,  made  at  home 2.00 

1  linen  skirt      ................  3.00 

1  lawn  dress,  made  at  home 2.00 

Collars,  ties,  belts 3.00 

Gloves,  1  dogskin,  2  kid,  2  white  cotton 5.00 

Handkerchiefs  (8  for  $1.00,  plain  linen) 2.00 

$150.70 
SECOND  YEAR 

4  undervests $.25  $1.00 

4  pair  drawers .     .50  2.00 

4  corset  covers  . 50  2.00 

3  nightgowns 1.00  3.00 

2  pair  corsets 1.50  3.00 

Stockings,  8  pair .25  2.00 

1  pair  high  shoes       3.50 

1  pair  low  shoes 3.00 

1  pair  slippers 3.00 

1  pair  rubbers .75 

1  pair  sandals .50 

1  black  sateen  petticoat 1.50 

1  wool  dress  plain,  to  J>e  worn  with  coat  for  every  day        .  10.00 

1  silk  waist 4.00 

Winter  hats,  remodeled,  one  new 8.00 

3  tailored  waists 3.00 

Summer  hats,  remodeled 2.00 

1  new  summer  hat 6.00 

1  silk  umbrella 2.00 

Mending  shoes 1.50 

Gloves,  1  pair  dogskin,  1  kid,  2  cotton 3.00 

Collars,  etc . 5.00 

1  spring  suit 20.00 

1  white  muslin  dress 8.00 

1  linen  suit 10.00 

$107.75 


318  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


THIRD  YEAR 

4  summer  undervests $1.00 

4  pair  drawers 2.00 

4  corset  covers 2.00 

2  pair  corsets 3.00 

Stockings -,   .    >    ,     .    V   .     .  ;.  2.00 

3  union  suits,  part  wool 4.50 

2  pair  high  shoes 7.00 

2  pair  low  shoes ,.,...    '..     .     .     .  6.00 

2  pair  rubbers '•  r.     .     .     .     .  1.50 

1  pair  sandals .     ,   ••»•    .     .     .     ..    .   -*-—r —  .50 

3  nightgowns < $1.00     .  3.00 

1  black  sateen  petticoat     .     .     .     ....     ...     .     .  1.50 

Short  outing  flannel  skirts       .     .     .     ;     .     .     ,.   ...     .     «    '  1.00 

1  winter  suit .     ...     .  %.     .     .     .     .  18.00 

1  new  hat,  winter 10.00 

4  shirt  waists   .     ......    v 5.00 

1  lawn  dress,  made  at  home   .     .     .     ...     .  ~.     .     ...     .  2.00 

1  new  hat,  summer   .     .     .     .     .     .......     .  -:.»-. .!'.     .  8.00 

Handkerchiefs,  16  at  $.12^      .\.     ..*,.. 2.00 

1  simple  silk  dress  for  evening     .     .     .  ;fc    .     .     .     .-•  .    ..  15.00 

1  simple  wool  dress 10.00 

Gloves,  3  pair v    .     .    ,  -  .  3.00 

1  waist  to  go  with  last  year's  suit .  3.00 

1  rubber  coat 5.00 

$116.00 
Average  per  year  of  $124.82. 


EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  clothing  budget  ? 

2.  Plan  to  keep  an  account  of  all  the  money  spent  for  your  cloth- 
ing by  your  parents  during  the  year. 

3.  In  order  to  plan  the  wardrobe  economically,  what  points  must 
one  consider  ? 

4.  Criticize  the  clothing  budget  which  averages  $65  a  year.  How 
might  it  have  been  improved  ? 

5.  Prepare  a  $100  budget  for  a  girl  making  her  underwear  and 
shirt  waists. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
CARE   AND   REPAIR   OF   CLOTHING 

"  A  STITCH  in  time  saves  nine,"  and  the  life  of  an  article  of 
clothing  may  be  prolonged  by  good  care.  This  means  more 
money  to  spend  on  other  things  when  one's  income  is  limited. 
In  order  to  be  well  dressed  and  well  groomed  a  girl  should 
give  daily  care  to  the  articles  of  clothing  being  worn.  It  may 
be  but  a  slight  attention  here  or  there,  but  if  the  small  things, 
such  as  replacing  a  hook,  fastening  a  button,  removing  a 
spot,  are  neglected,  much  more  time  is  consumed  finally  in 
repairing  or  renovating,  and  in  the  interim  one  is  not  neatly 
dressed.  There  is  no  indication  of  character  so  sure  as  this 
one. 

A   FEW   SUGGESTIONS   FOR   DAILY   USE 

Coats,  skirts,  and  waists  should  be  kept  on  hangers;  skirts 
on  the  kind  that  will  keep  the  bands  straight  and  coats  or 
waists  on  coat  hangers.  If  one  has  no  hangers,  loops  at  the 
sides  of  the  skirts  and  nails  placed  in  the  closet  at  right 
distance  will  keep  bands  extended.  A  piece  of  wood  wound 
with  cotton  batting  covered  with  muslin  or  silk  and  with  a 
ribbon  or  tape  hanger  will  make  a  good  substitute  for  a  coat 
hanger.  If  one  has  hangers,  a  pole  across  a  closet  is  an, 
economizer  of  space.  Hangers  prolong  the  life  of  clothes 
and  cost  very  little. 

Clothes  when  removed  at  night  should  be  aired.  Waists 
should  be  turned  so  shields  will  dry.  Shields  should  be 
washed  every  two  or  three  days.  Underwear  being  worn 

319 


320  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

should  be  aired  daily.  Different  clothing  should  be  worn  at 
night. 

Waists  in  reserve  may  be  kept  in  boxes  or  bureau  drawers. 
If  they  are  fancy,  stuff  the  sleeves  and  bows  with  tissue 
paper.  Good  gowns  should  have  cover  bags  slipped  over 
them  as  they  hang  in  closets.  The  cover  bags  are  easily 
made  (see  Chap.  XVI). 

Remember  to  protect  clothing  in  daily  use.  —  A  little 
brushing  every  day  will  keep  dust  from  accumulating.  An 
apron  worn  while  at  work  is  a  great  protection,  and  there 
are  many  attractive  ones  for  all  kind  of  uses.  Do  not  throw 
clothing  around  in  a  heap.  Notice  if  your  skirt  braid  is 
torn  or  a  hook  and  eye  is  needed  or  a  stitch  is  necessary. 
Do  it  at  once.  Watch  the  yokes  of  dresses.  Removable 
ones  that  may  be  washed  are  most  serviceable. 

Pressing.  —  There  is  nothing  which  adds  so  much  to  the 
life  of  a  suit  or  skirt  as  an  occasional  pressing.  It  also 
increases  one's  feeling  of  comfort  and  one  appears  better 
gowned.  It  can  be  done  easily  at  home  if  one  cannot  afford 
to  send  garments  to  a  tailor.  Press  on  the  wrong  side,  as  a 
rule,  except  in  the  steaming  process.  In  pressing,  place  a 
dampened  cloth  over  the  part  to  be  pressed,  and  press  with 
hot  irons  until  nearly  dry.  Then  turn  and  press  dry  on 
wrong  side.  Sleeve  broads,  tailor  cushions,  and  good  boards 
are  aids  in  pressing.  Woolen  goods  will  mark  or  shine  if 
pressed  on  right  side  without  a  cloth. 

Care  of  shoes  and  rubbers.  —  It  pays  to  have  two  pairs 
of  shoes  for  daily  wear  and  to  alternate  in  wearing.  Keep 
the  pair  not  in  use  on  shoe  trees.  These  can  be  purchased 
in  different  grades  from  $.25  to  $1,  and  they  prolong  the 
life  of  shoes.  If  one  cannot  afford  trees,  the  ordinary  pliable 
rattan  of  one  half  inch  diameter  can  be  bent  and  used  to  keep 
the  shoes  stretched.  A  good  polish  helps  to  preserve  the  shoes 


CARE  AND  REPAIR  OF  CLOTHING      321 

and  is  necessary  if  one  is  neat.  Rubbers  protect  shoes. 
When  shoes  get  wet  the  thread  rots  and  the  soles  separate. 
Rubbers  will  last  a  long  time  with  care.  Wash  them.  Soft 
paper  stuffed  in  heels  and  toes  will  prolong  their  life.  Adhe- 
sive plaster  or  a  few  stitches  will  help  if  they  become  split 
at  the  sides. 

Care  of  clothing  between  seasons.  —  After  each  season, 
clothing  should  be  put  away  in  good  condition  ready  for  the 
next  year.  Woolen  garments  should  be  repaired,  well 
brushed,  hung  in  the  sunshine,  and  then  carefully  folded. 
Brush  out  of  doors  if  possible  and  do  not  forget  the  inside 
of  pockets,  the  lapels,  and  cuffs  or  hems  where  dust  and 
eggs  of  moths  collect.  Fold  carefully  on  seams  whenever 
possible.  Gum  camphor  and  tar  paper  are  moth  preven- 
tives, and  can  be  used  in  packing  clothes  away.  After  boxes 
are  wrapped,  mark  with  labels  so  that  contents  can  be  easily 
found  when  needed.  Garments  brushed  and  put  away  in 
newspapers  and  boxes  carefully  sealed  are  well  protected, 
if  no  other  preventive  is  obtainable.  In  packing  away 
summer  clothing  it  should  be  clean  and  carefully  folded. 
Blue  tissue  paper  is  said  to  prevent  white  materials  or  lace 
from  turning  yellow. 

Care  of  colored  clothes  before  laundering.  —  It  pays  to 
set  colors  before  washing.  For  blue,  use  \  cup  of  vinegar 
and  1  tablespoon  of  alum  to  a  pail  of  water.  Lavenders 
may  be  treated  with  1  tablespoonful  of  sugar  of  lead.  Pinks 
and  blacks  may  be  set  with  salt,  2  cups  to  the  pail  of  water, 
and  soak  several  hours  before  washing. 

Renovating  and  cleaning  of  clothing.  —  Much  expense  can 
be  saved  by  home  care  of  clothing  and  all  textiles  through 
renovating  and  cleaning.  It  is  well  at  the  beginning  of  a 
season  to  examine  the  contents  of  one's  wardrobe  and  decide 
as  to  the  possibilities.  The  cost  may  be  a  little  trouble,  but 


322          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

when  gowns,  suits,  and  hats  are  worth  renovating  or  remodel- 
ing it  is  a  satisfaction  to  make  use  of  them. 

Dyeing.  —  Many  garments  may  be  freshened  and  made 
presentable  by  cleaning.  If  they  are  faded,  it  often  pays  to 
redye  them.  Garments  or  materials  to  be  dyed  should 
first  be  cleansed,  spots  removed,  or  garment  washed  if 
possible.  If  there  is  a  trimming  of  a  different  textile,  it 
should  be  removed  and  dyed  separately.  If  one  is  inex- 
perienced in  the  chemistry  of  dyeing  and  in  the  mixing  of 
colors,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  package  dyes  with  full  direc- 
tions for  use  on  different  textiles.  Do  not  forget  that  the 
fibers  take  dyes  differently  and  require  different  mordants 
for  fixing  the  colors.  Dyes  intended  for  wool  or  silk  cannot 
be  used  on  cotton  or  linen.  A  mordant  of  alum  or  salt  of 
tin  is  used  to  fix  the  color.  It  is  wise  to  experiment  if  pos- 
sible first  rather  than  to  spoil  the  article  to  be  dyed.  Goods 
should  be  thoroughly  wet  before  being  put  into  the  dye  bath, 
or  they  will  dye  unevenly.  The  washing  and  rinsing  are  a 
necessary  preparation,  for  material  which  is  dirty  will  not 
take  the  dye  in  a  clear  way,  but  will  look  muddy.  The 
washing  may  also  aid  in  removing  some  of  the  old  dye  by 
boiling  in  strong  soap  and  water  for  half  an  hour  and  chang- 
ing the  water  when  it  becomes  colored.  Wool,  of  course, 
should  not  be  boiled  in  this  way. 

There  is  one  great  difficulty  which  confronts  the  novice  in 
this  field  —  it  is  not  easy  to  tell  what  influence  the  dye  will 
have  on  the  fabric  if  it  is  already  colored.  It  is  easy  to  dye 
white  fabrics  or  redye  any  material  the  same  color  or  a 
trifle  darker,  but  the  combinations  of  dye  color  and  fabric 
color  necessitate  a  real  study  of  color  in  order  that  the  mix- 
ing may  bring  about  the  desired  results.  The  material  to 
be  dyed  should  be  rinsed  carefully  after  dyeing.  A  little 
experimenting  with  samples  will  repay  the  inexperienced 


CARE  AND  REPAIR  OF  CLOTHING      323 

dyer.  Tinting  is  sometimes  a  useful  way  of  renovating. 
Logwood  is  useful  in  obtaining  brown;  for  blueing  try 
laundry  blue  ;  cream  color  may  be  obtained  from  saffron ;  and 
tea  and  coffee  give  different  ecru  shades. 

Renovating  laces.  —  Irish  crochet  should  be  carefully 
washed  in  warm  water  and  a  pure  white  soap  to  which  some 
good  ammonia  has  been  added.  If  possible  put  on  the 
grass  to  bleach.  Irish  crochet  may  be  ironed  on  the  wrong 
side  on  a  soft  crash  towel.  It  is  better  to  place  it  on  a  cloth- 
covered  board  and  pin  down  carefully  each  point  of  lace  in 
the  shape  desired.  Place  it  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Almost  any 
lace  can  be  pinned  down.  It  is  not  necessary  to  starch  or 
add  dressing.  If  pinned  while  very  wet  it  will  be  stiff 
enough.  Softer  laces  may  be  tacked  to  cheesecloth  soaked 
in  cold  water,  and  washed  carefully  in  borax  and  water,  and 
if  necessary  bleached  with  Javelle  water.  (See  Laundering.) 
Place  in  sun  to  dry.  Some  laces  can  be  pressed  between 
cloths  and  some  varieties  on  the  wrong  side  with  cloth  or 
paper  between.  Judgment  must  be  used.  A  marble  slab 
is  useful  and  lace  spread  on  the  marble  carefully  or  wound 
about  a  bottle  often  dries  very  satisfactorily  and  looks  like 
new. 

Renovating  of  silks  and  velvets.  —  Velvet  should  be 
brushed  and  steamed.  Put  a  wet  cloth  over  a  hot  iron, 
and  the  wrong  side  of  the  velvet  towards  the  wet  cloth ; 
draw  it  back  and  forth,  brushing  with  soft  brush.  The  nap 
is  raised  by  the  steam  unless  too  badly  marked.  Velvet  can 
also  be  steamed  over  a  kettle.  The  effect  of  panne  velvet 
can  be  made  by  dampening  the  back  of  the  velvet  and  iron- 
ing it  on  the  nap  side  with  a  cool  iron.  Silks  should  be  sponged 
before  pressing.  Lay  the  silk  flat  on  a  marble,  sponge  up  and 
down  with  a  mixture  of  soap  and  water  and  alcohol.  Rinse 
but  do  not  wring.  Press  when  half  or  nearly  dry  on  the  wrong 


324          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

side  between  papers ;  do  not  put  the  iron  next  to  the  silk,  as 
it  takes  away  its  life  and  makes  it  shiny.  Old  silks  and 
ribbons  when  renovated  can  be  used  for  hair  ribbons  and 
hat  trimmings.  Old  silk  waists  and  petticoats  can  be  used 
for  shirred  silk  hats  when  such  are  in  style. 

Renovating  of  hat  materials.  —  Besides  silks  and  velvets 
old  hat  materials,  such  as  feathers  and  flowers,  can  be  cleansed 
and  reused.  Faded  flowers  and  foliage  can  be  used  when 
not  too  old  or  soiled  by  cutting  away  the  frayed  edges  and 
painting  them  with  water  colors  or  oil  paint  thinned  with 
gasoline.  Feathers  when  slightly  uncurled  can  be  recurled 
by  shaking  and  drying  over  the  stove  on  which  some  salt 
has  been  sprinkled.  A  small  curling  knife  can  be  bought 
for  curling  purposes,  but  unless  one  is  expert,  more  damage 
than  good  is  the  result,  and  it  is  better  to  take  the  feathers 
to  a  reliable  shop  to  be  renovated.  Wire  or  other  frames 
can  be  reused  by  changing  shape,  lowering  crowns,  and 
enlarging  brims.  Straws  can  be  easily  cleaned.  Black 
straw  after  dusting  can  be  cleansed  with  ammonia  and  water, 
reblackened  with  shoe  blacking  or  dye;  the  straw  can  be 
brushed  and  freshened  with  dye  or  blue.  Whole  hats  can 
be  dyed ;  and  when  a  white  hat  has  been  burned  this  is  per- 
haps the  best  way  to  make  use  of  it.  Natural  straws  can 
be  treated  with  prepared  cleaning  fluids  or  washed  in  warm 
water  and  a  pure  white  soap  applied  with  a  brush.  In 
cleaning  shops,  blocks  are  used  for  pressing.  To  restore 
stiffness,  press  hats  with  hot  iron  while  still  damp. 

Cleaning  of  clothing  can  be  done  with  little  expense  and 
often  in  a  satisfactory  way  at  home.  Washing  accomplishes 
a  great  deal  (see  Laundering,  Book  II).  The  first  thing  to 
do  toward  removing  a  stain  is  to  try  to  discover  what  has 
caused  the  stain.  If  one  does  not  know,  it  is  wise  to  test 
some  other  place  on  garment  where  it  will  not  be  noticed. 


CARE   AND   REPAIR   OF   CLOTHING  325 

Woolen  goods  can  be  cleansed  by  washing  in  warm  water 
with  soap  solution  or  soap  bark.  A  soap  solution  is  made 
by  simmering,  not  boiling,  one  cake  of  soap  in  two  cups  of 
water.  Press  on  the  wrong  side  when  almost  dry  or  with 
damp  cheesecloth  on  right  side.  Soap  bark  is  prepared 
for  use  by  putting  five  cents'  worth  in  a  few  quarts  of  water. 
After  it  has  stood  an  hour,  strain  it  and  pour  into  the 
lukewarm  water  in  which  material  is  to  be  washed.  Wash 
and  rinse  carefully,  always  rinsing  in  the  same  warm  tem- 
perature as  the  washing,  so  as  not  to  shrink  by  sudden 
shock.  Bath  temperature  is  about  right.  Every  girl  should 
know  how  to  remove  the  everyday  spots  that  are  so  likely 
to  appear.  Large  garments  which  need  cleansing  should  be 
sent  to  the  professional  cleaner,  as  well  as  delicate  fabrics 
spotted  by  an  unknown  substance.  There  are  some  of  the 
simple  stains  that  can  be  removed  with  care  from  white 
cotton  goods.  Silks,  wools,  and  colored  goods  need  special 
care. 

Ink.  —  Where  the  composition  is  unknown  it  is  difficult 
to  know  what  to  use  first.  Sour  milk  or  several  rinsings  in 
sweet  milk  may  cause  the  spot  to  disappear.  Then  wash 
in  warm  water  and  soap  to  remove  grease.  If  this  is  not 
successful,  a  paste  made  of  lemon  juice,  starch,  and  salt,  or 
finally  Javelle  water.  Soak  for  a  few  minutes  in  Javelle 
water,  wash ;  repeat  process  if  necessary. 

Grass  stains.  —  Alcohol  may  be  used  when  the  material 
cannot  ,be  washed,  or  for  white  goods.  When  color  will 
stand  it,  dyed  fabrics,  grass  stained,  can  be  washed  with 
strong  ammonia  and  water  followed  by  warm  soap  solution 
and  careful  rinsing. 

Blood  stains.  —  Lukewarm  water  and  a  little  ammonia 
will  remove  blood  stains  that  are  fresh.  When  on  colored 
silk,  wash  carefully  with  lukewarm  water  or  soap  solution. 


326          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

* 

Rust  stains.  —  On  table  linen,  wet  the  spot  and  apply  a 
few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  solution  and  wash  thoroughly. 
On  colored  or  wool  goods,  if  of  good  quality,  special  applica- 
tions of  citric  acid  solution  cold  will  generally  remove. 
Great  care  is  required  for  colors. 

Fruit  stains.  —  Stretch  the  fabric,  if  white,  over  a  bowl 
and  pour  boiling  water  from  a  height  through  the  spot.  On 
white  wool  or  silk,  lukewarm  soap  solution  is  sometimes 
effective,  or  boiling  water  applied  while  borax  is  brushed  on. 
On  colored  garments  it  is  wise  to  consult  a  professional  dyer. 

Coffee  and  tea  stains.  —  Remove  by  washing  in  lukewarm 
water  and  then  dipping  in  washing  soda  solution  and  again 
carefully  rinsing  to  remove  all  soda.  (Make  solution  of 
three  parts  of  washing  soda  to  one  hundred  of  water.)  Tea 
stains  can  also  be  removed  by  soaking  in  glycerine  and  then 
washing. 

Grease  spots.  —  Most  grease  spots  can  be  easily  removed 
with  naptha  soap  and  lukewarm  water.  Chemical  or  dry 
cleaning  will  remove  grease  spots  by  dissolving  the  fat. 
The  cleaning  liquid  may  be  ether,  turpentine,  or  benzine 
(which  must  be  used  well  away  from  fire  or  flame),  or  chloroform 
or  carbon  tetrachloride.  On  silk  sand  satins  rub  the  spot 
with  a  thin  paste  made  of  benzine  and  carbonate  of 
magnesia.  The  benzine  evaporates  and  the  magnesia  will 
absorb  the  grease  and  can  be  brushed  off.  Dry  French  chalk 
or  magnesia  powdered  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  material 
for  a  while  will  usually  remove  grease  spots  successfully.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  brush  off  and  repeat  several  times. 

On  wool  or  cotton  remove  grease  spots  by  rubbing  the 
spot  several  times  with  a  sponge  saturated  with  benzine. 
Use  fresh  benzine,  as  each  rub  removes  some  of  the  fat, 
otherwise  fat  will  spread.  A  warm  iron  and  blotting  paper 
will  remove  some  grease  spots. 


CARE   AND   REPAIR   OF   CLOTHING        •      327 

Milk  spots.  —  Cold  water  and  a  pure  white  soap  will  re- 
move milk  spots  from  some  fabrics.  Wet  the  spot  with 
pure  glycerine  by  means  of  stiff  brush.  When  thoroughly 
saturated,  wash  carefully  for  five  or  ten  minutes  in  luke- 
warm water.  Wring  out  and  iron  on  wrong  side. 

Machine  oil.  —  Wash  in  cold  water  and  pure  white  soap. 
This  will  remove  most  machine  oil  spots. 

These  simple  methods  of  removing  spots  should  enable 
every  girl  to  be  neat.  It  will  aid  materially  in  removing 
spots  if  a  pad  is  used.  This  can  be  made  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  old  cloth  or  blotting  paper  and  should  be  moved 
about  to  take  up  the  grease  in  a  fresh  spot  as  the  solvent 
dissolves  it.  Good  brushes  and  a  glass  slab  aid  in  doing 
careful  work. 

If  the  garment  is  too  large  to  be  cleaned  at  home,  brush 
and  repair  it  carefully  before  sending  to  the  cleaners.  If 
it  is  to  be  cleansed  at  home,  use  only  the  best  of  gasoline  or 
naphtha.  Beware  of  fire  and  dip  the  garment  in  quantities 
of  the  gasoline  large  enough  to  make  it  worth  the  effort. 
Rinse  again  in  fresh  gasoline. 

Mending  and  remodeling  of  clothing.  —  Mending  in  many 
families  seems  to  be  a  lost  art.  Stockings  are  worn 
until  holes  appear,  then  discarded.  This  does  not  tend  to 
increase  one's  self-respect,  for  well-cared-for  clothing  is  an 
indication  of  character.  The  majority  of  housewives  repair 
after  the  weekly  laundering.  It  is  wise  also  to  repair  before. 
Laundering  often  increases  the  size  of  holes  and  weakens 
the  torn  or  worn  parts  as  they  are  rubbed.  This  pre- 
laundering  repair  will  be  found  to  be  a  time  saver  and  in- 
crease the  life  of  the  garments.  It  is  possible  to  spend  too 
much  time  on  old  garments.  Good  judgment  should  be 
used.  The  sewing  machine  can  often  be  used  for  darning, 
patching,  or  other  repairing.  Sewing  machine  darners 


328  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

vary  in  practicability,  but  some  are  serviceable.  Good 
judgment  is  necessary  in  deciding  about  the  method  of  repair- 
ing various  garments,  whether  a  patch  or  a  darn  is  to  be 
used,  a  part  replaced,  or  a  bit  of  tape  or  net  used  as  a  stay. 
Tape  and  net  are  indispensable.  Brussels  net  placed  under 
worn  collars  or  lingerie  waists,  thin  dresses,  or  even  light 
wool  materials  is  useful  and  serviceable  for  staying  while 
darning. 

A  mending  basket  is  a  great  help,  and  if  possible  a  mend- 
ing drawer,  where  basket,  darning  bag,  with  all  the  necessary 
tools  and  materials  for  stocking  darning,  and  garments  to 
be  repaired  can  be  kept.  A  sewing  room  is  an  added  joy 
to  the  housewife.  A  drawer  in  which  to  keep  materials  for 
repairing  is  almost  indispensable.  A  scrap  bag,  if  one  can- 
not spare  a  drawer  or  (one  woman's  invention)  a  sofa  cushion 
cover  may  be  used  as  a  scrap  bag  where  space  is  limited. 
In  large  families  it  saves  time  to  have  the  clothes  of  indi- 
viduals carefully  marked.  There  are  various  systems  of 
marking  that  aid  in  sorting. 

Patching.  —  As  all  girls  should  learn  to  patch  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  describe  the 
method  of  making  the  various  patches.  The  hemmed  patch 
is  perhaps  the  most  useful,  and  the  flannel  patch  is  one  every 
girl  should  know  how  to  make.  Patches  are  used  when  holes 
are  too  large  to  be  darned.  The  hemmed  patch  is  used  on 
materials  requiring  laundering,  such  as  underwear  and  house- 
hold linen,  the  flannel  patch  on  garments  that  are  liable  to 
shrink  and  which  are  too  thick  for  turned  edges.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  patch  of  new  material  on  a  faded  garment 
the  patch  can  be  faded,  if  of  cotton  or  linen,  by  boiling  in 
soapy  water  to  which  soda  has  been  added.  The  overhanded 
patch  is  used  on  materials  seldom  washed,  where  the  rough 
overcasted  edges  on  the  wrong  side  are  not  objectionable. 


CARE   AND   REPAIR   OF   CLOTHING  329 

The  overhanded  patch  shows  little  on  the  right  side,  and  is 
useful  for  dimity  or  other  dresses.  In  all  repairing  careful 
pressing  is  a  great  aid. 

Darning  is  useful  not  only  to  replace  parts  worn  away, 
but  to  prevent  wearing.  Methods  of  darning  are  familiar 
to  all  high  school  girls.  It  is  necessary  to  choose  carefully 
the  mending  material  so  as  to  match  the  color  and  texture  of 
material.  Wool,  silk,  linen,  and  cotton  thread,  ravelings  of 
material,  horse  hair,  and  human  hair  are  all  possibilities. 
The  needle  should  be  as  fine  as  can  be  used  with  the  neces- 
sary thread,  as  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  work  as  inconspicu- 
ous as  possible.  When  the  material  is  missing  the  woven 
darn  is  necessary.  Stockings,  sweaters,  woolen  gloves,  and 
caps  of  knitted  materials  are  best  repaired  by  darning. 
When  this  method  of  repairing  is  used  for  reenforcing  cotton, 
net  is  often  very  useful.  It  is  basted  under  the  woven  part 
and  the  darning  used  to  strengthen  and  hold  in  place.  The 
machine  darner  is  well  worth  while  for  certain  purposes  of 
everyday  mending. 

Mending  tissue  is  a  useful  adjunct  of  the  repair  basket. 
It  is  used  by  tailors  for  mending  ragged  tears.  It  is  a  semi- 
transparent  substance  of  rubber  consistency.  A  piece  is 
placed  beneath  the  tear  and  a  hot  iron  melts  the  substance, 
which  adheres  to  the  material  and  keeps  the  edges  together. 

Remodeling.  —  It  does  not  always  pay  to  cleanse  and 
make  over  old  clothes.  Decide  first  whether  the  material  is 
good  enough  to  make  the  work  worth  while.  It  is  generally 
worth  while  to  replace  yokes,  to  add  new  sleeves,  or  to 
lengthen  garments.  Children's  garments  can  be  lengthened 
by  letting  down  hems  and  adding  false  ones.  This  can  be 
done  with  the  use  of  tucks  and  seldom  shows.  Material 
of  the  same  or  contrasting  kind  can  be  added  to  skirts  at 
the  bottom.  Quite  a  length  can  be  added  by  turning  the 


330  SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 

hem  to  the  right  side  and  using  a  cord  covered  with  the  same 
material  as  piping  where  hem  is  sewed.  Featherstitching, 
braid,  or  other  trimmings  are  useful  in  this  way.  Garments 
of  wash  material  can  also  be  lengthened  by  the  insertion  of 
bands  of  embroidery  or  braid.  Care  must  be  used  to  place 
well  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  skirt.  Old  skirts,  if 
of  good  woolen  material,  can  be  ripped,  washed,  recut,  and 
made  over  satisfactorily.  Wash  waists  which  have  become 
worn  about  collar  or  wrists  and  are  not  worth  a  new  collar 
or  cuffs  can  be  utilized  by  cutting  away  worn  collars  and 
wearing  with  a  turn-down  Dutch  collar  in  warm  weather. 
The  sleeves  can  be  cut  short  as  desired  and  finished  with  a 
suitable  edge.  When  waists  are  worn  beneath  the  arm  and 
are  worth  it,  rip  the  sleeve  at  the  armhole  and  underarm 
seams,  and  replace  with  new  pieces. 

If  mothers  or  sisters  have  the  time,  it  pays  to  use  good 
half-worn  clothing  for  coats  or  suits  for  the  boys  or  little 
children.  Discarded  clothing  of  no  value  to  others  can  be 
washed,  cut  in  strips,  and  sent  to  a  local  weaver  to  be  made 
into  rugs.  Old  stockings  make  very  good  stripes  in  the  carpet, 
or  several  may  be  sewed  together  and  used  for  iron  holders 
or  soft  cleaning  cloths . 

In  our  grandmother's  day,  sheets  were  made  of  two  widths 
of  cloth  sewed  through  the  middle.  When  worn,  they  were 
ripped  at  the  center  and  the  worn  part  turned  to  the  edges. 
It  is  possible  to-day  when  sheets  become  worn,  if  width  per- 
mits, to  cut  through  center  and  place  the  selvedges  in  seam 
at  the  center,  thus  lengthening  their  period  of  usefulness. 
Tablecloths,  napkins,  towels,  pillowcases,  and  curtains 
should  be  watched  carefully  and  darned  or  patched  in  time. 


CARE   AND   REPAIR   OF   CLOTHING  331 

EXERCISES 

1.  Give  five  suggestions  for  the  care  of  clothing  which  can  be 
practiced  daily. 

2.  What  ethical  reasons  can  you  give  for  exercising  care  of  one's 
clothing  ? 

3.  Experiment  in  the  chemical  laboratory  with  the  use  of  some 
package  or  vegetable  dyes. 

4.  Bring  to  the  chemical  laboratory  garments  from  which  spots 
are  to  be  removed.     Follow  directions  for  removal. 

5.  Bring  to  class  and  repair  garments  by  means  of  patching, 
darning,  and  use  of  mending  net. 

6.  Give  suggestions  for  economy  in  the  use  and  remodeling  of 
clothing. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE    CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES 

IT  has  been  said  that  one  of  the  evidences  of  an  educa- 
tion is  the  ability  to  do.  All  high  school  girls  should  be 
able  if  necessity  or  desire  dictates  to  make  their  simple 
dresses.  Girls  often  remark  what  a  saving  it  is  to  be  able 
to  make  even  their  shirt  waists  and  white  skirts.  It  saves 
money  and  one  can  have  prettier  garments  because  it  is  not 
necessary  to  pay  a  dressmaker.  Girls  have  in  some  high 
schools  in  New  York  made  their  own  graduation  dresses 
within  a  limit  of  one  dollar  for  materials.  There  is  a  great 
satisfaction  which  comes  with  the  independence  one  feels 
in  the  ability  to  do. 

What  dresses  should  a  high  school  girl  be  able  to  make  ?  — 
The  following  list  includes  simple  dresses  that  come  within 
the  ability  of  every  high  school  girl.  If  she  has  made  the 
undergarments  suggested,  the  following  outer  garments  can 
be  made  under  the  teacher's  direction  with  little  difficulty  :  — 

1.  Middy  blouse  6.  Norfolk  jacket   waist   of 

2.  Shirt  waist  (simple  lingerie)  cotton,  to  be  worn  with 

3.  Tailored  cotton  skirt  tailored  skirt 

4.  Gymnasium  suit  7.  Simple  one-piece  gingham 

a.  bloomers  dress 

b.  waist  8.  Simple    one-piece    white 

5.  Tailored  shirt  waist  dimity  or  lawn  dress 

9.  One-piece  wool  dress 

The  construction  of  these  garments  should  be  very  easily 
accomplished,  as  some  of  the  processes  have  been  practiced 

332 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  333 

in  the  garment  making  described  in  previous  chapters.  A 
few  suggestions  in  relation  to  each  will  be  made  to  indicate 
the  course  of  procedure. 

The  middy  blouse.  —  This  is  one  of  the  first  garments  for 
which  every  high  school  girl  has  a  need  —  in  basket  ball  or 
other  gymnasium  work.  It  can  be  worn  with  bloomers  or, 
outside  the  gymnasium,  with  a  skirt.  White  duck  or  linen 
is  a  suitable  and  satisfactory  material. 

Use  commercial  pattern  (see  Chap.  XIV  for  selection  of 
pattern).  Lay  it  economically,  trace  according  to  allow- 
ance for  seams.  Do  not  forget  to  place  pattern  on  a  fold 
where  only  half  a  part  is  given. 

Baste  seams  on  the  outside  at  shoulder  and  underarm. 
Try  on,  and  if  necessary  drop  the  front  to  fit  smoothly  across 
chest,  or  let  out  at  underarm,  if  extra  fullness  is  needed. 
Stitch  seams  on  right  side.  Cut  off  a  portion  of  each  seam 
towards  front  and  lap  back  portion  to  make  flat  fell  \"  wide. 
Make  hem  at  bottom  1"  finished,  turned  to  right  side. 
Seams  are  often  finished  in  other  ways  and  turned  to  the 
wrong  side.  Next  prepare  collar.  If  it  is  to  be  trimmed 
with  braid,  do  so  before  it  is  attached  or  lined.  Attach 
collar  and  facing,  following  notches  and  directions  of  pattern 
so  as  to  have  a  smooth  facing  around  the  opening  of  the 
blouse  where  it  rolls  back  at  the  neck.  Hem  the  collar, 
facing  neatly  by  hand  around  neck  after  collar  has  been 
stitched  on  and  the  outside  edges  stitched  in  tailored  fashion. 
The  sleeves  can  be  seamed  with  a  false  French  seam.  This 
is  a  simple  seam  made  on  the  wrong  side  and  the  edges  turned 
in  and  stitched.  Sleeves  of  the  middy  blouse  are  made  both 
with  and  without  cuffs.  Often  a  half -inch  hem  only  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  and  the  sleeves  rolled.  A  cuff  gives  the 
sleeve  a  more  finished  look.  Follow  directions  of  pattern  for 
attaching  it.  The  blouse  is  worn  with  a  silk  scarf  placed 


334          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

under  the  rolled  collar  and  tied  in  a  sailor's  knot  at  the  front. 
Black  or  red  ties  contrast  well  with  white  waists  trimmed 
with  dark  blue  or  red  braid. 

Simple  lingerie  shirt  waist.  —  Use  drafted  shirt  waist 
pattern  from  which  the  corset  cover  and  chemise  were  de- 
veloped (see  Fig.  103).  Dimity,  lawn,  madras,  and  flaxon 
are  all  suitable  materials.  Put  the  cambric  pattern  of  the 
shirt  waist  on  a  figure.  Look  through  fashion  books  and  de- 
cide how  you  wish  to  trim  the  waist.  Hold  or  arrange  the 
material  over  the  pattern  on  figure  to  get  the  effect  and,  if 
it  is  to  be  tucked,  pin  in  an  arrangement.  Remove  material 
and  tuck  or  decorate  with  lace  according  to  style  selected. 
(See  decoration  of  underwear  for  methods  of  inserting  lace 
or  other  decoration.)  The  waist  can  be  opened  in  front  or 
back.  Plan  decoration  and  make  hems  for  laps  accordingly. 
Do  not  lay  cambric  pattern  of  waist  on  the  material  for  cut- 
ting out  until  the  decoration  has  been  completed.  In  laying 
the  front  pattern,  adjust  fullness  so  that  the  fullness  falls 
in  straight  lines  and  is  not  drawn  towards  underarm.  The 
warp  of  the  material  at  underarm  should  be  slightly  on  the 
bias.  Trace,  making  seam  allowance  1"  at  shoulder  and 
underarm  and  J"  at  neck  and  armhole.  Cut  from  corrected 
drafted  pattern. 

Baste  seams  and  try  on.  Pin  cotton  belting  \"  around 
waist,  and  in  fitting  adjust  gathers  at  center  front  and  back 
to  fit  the  belt.  The  sides  and  underarm  should  be  smooth, 
and  the  seams  on  a  straight  line  about  under  the  armpit. 
The  shoulder  seams  should  be  well  located  on  top  of  shoulder. 
If  a  person  is  round-shouldered,  the  seam  placed  slightly  to 
the  back  of  the  shoulder  bone  will  help  to  correct  this  in  ap- 
pearance. Trim  the  armhole  if  it  is  snug.  Even  off  around 
bottom  according  to  length  desired.  Four  inches  below  belt  is 
sufficient.  This  can  all  be  done  at  the  first  fitting,  and  unless 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  335 

the  waist  needs  many  alterations  it  can  be  finished  to  this 
point,  leaving  neck  and  sleeves  for  second  fitting.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  neck  is  not  stretched  at  the  first  fitting. 
The  collar  can  be  prepared,  pinned,  and  basted  in  place  if 
desired,  for  this  fitting.  Finish  underarm  and  shoulder 
seams  with  French  or  false  French  seams  as  narrow  as  possible. 
Belt  can  be  sewed  on  the  right  or  wrong  side  of  waist.  If 
belt  is  not  used,  a  piece  of  tape  can  be  sewed  at  center  front 
and  back  to  hold  the  fullness  of  gathers.  Sometimes  tape 
or  belting  is  attached  only  at  back  from  underarm  to  under- 
arm seam,  and  the  front  left  loose  to  be  held  in  by  ends  of 
the  belt  passed  around  to  front  and  lapped.  Stitch  belting 
or  tape  at  both  edges,  but  be  sure  it  falls  below  the  waist- 
line of  skirt  band.  Hem  bottom  of  waist  by  machine  with 
1"  hem.  Next,  prepare  collar  — •  a  straight  piece  is  best  for 
a  simple  lingerie  waist,  if  a  collar  is  desired.  Decorate  to 
correspond  with  waist  trimming.  The  top  of  the  collar 
can  be  slightly  shaped ;  the  bottom  should  be  straight.  Pre- 
pare sleeves  to  correspond  in  trimming  with  waist.  Slip 
on  to  see  if  width  is  correct  and  sew  the  seam.  The  sleeve 
seam  usually  falls  from  2"  to  3"  to  the  front  of  the  under- 
arm seam.  The  gathers  of  sleeve  should  be  adjusted  2"  or 
2J"  to  the  back  and  4"  to  the  front  of  the  shoulder  seam. 
The  collar  and  sleeves  should  be  basted  in  place  for  this  fitting. 
There  should  be  a  good  straight  line  at  bottom  of  collar  where 
attached.  Try  on  and,  if  necessary,  alter  sleeve  or  collar. 
If  these  are  placed  carefully,  it  seldom  happens  that  a  third 
fitting  is  necessary.  Baste  armhole  binding.  This  should  be 
a  bias  strip  of  lawn  1"  wide.  Baste  to  the  waist  side.  Stitch 
on  with  sleeve,  which  should  be  stitched  on  the  sleeve  side. 
Turn  and  hem  by  hand  to  seam.  Collar  can  be  stitched  flat 
on  right  side  and  the  inside  edge  of  waist  hemmed  to  collar, 
or  collar  turned  and  hemmed  to  the  waist.  It  can  also  be 


336 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


stitched  in  a  seam  on  wrong  side  and  the  edges  turned  in  false 
French  seam.  Entre  deux  is  sometimes  used  in  joining  the 
collar  to  the  waist.  Necks  can  also  be  trimmed  and  finished 
for  square  necks  or  round  low  necks  for  Dutch  collars. 

Tailored  cotton  skirt  (see  Fig.  133).  —  This  skirt  can 
be  worn  with  tailored  shirt,  lingerie,  or  Norfolk  jacket  waist. 
Cotton  duck  or  linon  is  inexpensive ;  or  linen  can  be  used. 
Use  draft  for  foundation  skirt  pattern. 
Divide  in  gores  according  to  style  (see 
Fig.  109).  Place  gores  on  cloth  economi- 
cally. Trace  seam  allowance  and  cut  out. 
One  inch  is  enough  to  allow  on  the  seams 
and  \"  at  top  of  skirt.  Mark  the  notches 
and  allow  for  the  bottom  of  the  skirt. 

To  fit  skirt :  Baste  together  with  seams 
on  the  wrong  side,  holding  bias  side  of 
gores  always  toward  the  worker  and  match 
notches.  Place  tape  belting  around  waist, 
lapping  at  point  where  skirt  will  open. 
Skirts  are  fitted  with  right  side  out.  Pin 
carefully  at  waistline  to  the  belting. 
The  lines  of  skirt  seams  should  be  straight 
and  not  fall  too  far  to  front  or  back.  Skirt 
should  be  easy  over  the  hips,  and  not  so 
tight  across  back  or  front  that  easy  walk- 
ing is  impossible  or  the  form  is  displayed  in  an  ugly  fashion. 
Darts  should  be  carefully  pinned  to  fit.  Remove  skirt,  trace 
alterations,  rebaste,  and  fit  a  second  time  before  stitching. 
Seams  can  be  finished  with  simple  seams  lapped  or  flat  felled. 
If  paneled  front  or  back  is  used,  as  in  six-gored  skirt,  the  side 
seams  are  usually  simple  and  the  panels  stitched  flat  to  the 
side  gores  \"  from  the  edges  of  panels.  This  gives  a  tailored 
finish  of  \"  tuck  at  each  side  of  panel.  Seams  inside  can  be 


FIG.  133. — Tailored 
shirt  waist  and  skirt. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  337 

overcasted.  There  are  many  ways  of  finishing  the  placket 
facing.  If  the  paneled  front  is  used,  finish  the  under  lap  or 
straight  edge  of  first  gore  with  two  strips  of  cotton  tape  sewed 
together  flat  with  raw  edge  of  gore  between  tapes.  The  panel 
or  front  of  placket  which  is  on  top  should  not  show  the  sewing 
on  the  right  side.  Place  the  raw  edge  of  panel  between  two 
strips  of  tape  and  hem  by  hand  to  the  material  inside.  The 
edges  of  the  tape  at  the  outside  can  be  stitched  together.  The 
belt  can  be  finished  by  trimming  the  skirt  material  so  it  is  even 
with  top  of  waist  tape.  Place  another  strip  of  tape  on  top  and 
stitch  at  both  edges.  The  bottom  of  skirt  should  be  turned 
and  tried  on  and  corrected  if  necessary.  Lay  plaits  of  full- 
ness carefully  where  they  fall  and  baste  the  hem.  Try  on 
again  before  stitching  or  hemming  by  hand.  If  an  inverted 
plait  is  used  at  center  back  opening  of  the  skirt,  a  single 
piece  of  material  2"  wide  can  be  attached  to  the  under  side 
of  opening  with  a  felled  seam.  Outer  edge  of  this  can  be 
hemmed  with  J"  hem.  The  upper  side  of  opening  can  be 
faced  with  a  strip  2"  wide  sewed  in  simple  seam  and  hemmed 
flat.  A  row  of  stitching  across  bottom  of  vent  will  prevent 
tearing  down. 

The  gymnasium  suit,  bloomers  and  waist  (see  Fig.  134).  — 
Sateen  is  inexpensive  and  can  be  handled  easily ;  brilliantine 
or  serge  can  also  be  used.  If  one  does  not  care  to  have  the- 
blouse  match  the  bloomers,  the  middy  of  cotton  duck  or  linen 
can  be  used  with  the  bloomers.  Use  commercial  pattern. 
Alter  according  to  measurements  (see  Chap.  XIV). 

Lay  the  pattern  economically.  Find  out  whether  or  not 
your  pattern  allows  for  seams  and  trace  accordingly. 

Bloomers  should  be  seamed  with  flat  fell  seams.  The 
plackets  at  sides  can  be  constructed  in  the  same  way  as  de- 
scribed for  closed  drawers.  The  fullness  of  the  bloomers 
can  be  plaited  or  gathered  to  fit  the  waistbands.  The  waist- 


338 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


bands  should  be  wide  enough  to  be  comfortable ;  if  the  pattern 
does  not  indicate  them  at  least  2"  wide  finished,  alter  it. 
The  front  band  is  usually  shorter  than  the  back  and  the 
buttons  are  placed  on  it  and  the  buttonholes  on  the  back 
band.  Buttonholes  can  be  placed  on  the 
middle  of  the  bands  or  two  at  sides  instead 
of  button  if  it  is  to  be  buttoned  to  the 
waist.  At  the  knees  make  casing  and  run 
in  elastic  to  hold  fullness. 

After  cutting  the  waist,  baste  at  under- 
arm and  shoulder  for  fitting.  Some  pat- 
terns do  not  allow  for  plaits  at  front  lap 
or  tucks  to  be  taken  for  extra  fullness 
across  front.  If  this  allowance  is  not 
made,  the  front  hems  for  laps  and  the 
tucks  between  front  and  armholes  should 
be  made  before  the  waist  is  cut  out,  as 
described  for  lingerie  or  tailored  waist.  If 
pattern  allows  for  tucks,  then  these  must 
be  basted  and  also  front  hems  before  fit- 
ting, as  described  for  lingerie  waist.  But- 
tons or  hooks  and  eyes  can  be  placed  on 
the  waist  belt,  and  the  bloomers  hooked 
or  buttoned  to  it.  An  extra  belt  can  be  used  to  cover  over 
and  finish.  The  collar  and  cuffs  can  be  finished  as  pattern 
provides.  The  open  neck  is  more  comfortable  for  gymna- 
sium work,  and  some  prefer  short  sleeves  to  long  ones  with 
cuffs. 

Tailored  shirt  waists  (see  Figs.  135  and  136).  — Use 
drafted  shirtwaist  pattern  (see  Fig.  103).  Decide  whether 
or  not  tucks  are  to  be  placed  each  side  of  front  lap.  If  so, 
place  and  finish  tucks  as  well  as  front  lap  before  cutting  out. 
The  tailored  waist  should  lap  from  left  to  right.  The  under 


FIG. 


134.  —  Gymna- 
sium suit. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  339 

lap  at  right  should  be  1 J"  turned  to  wrong  side  of  waist.  The 
upper  lap  for  buttonholes  should  be  1|"  wide  and  finished 
with  a  row  of  stitching  each  side  f"  from  the  edges.  If  the 
material  has  a  right  and  wrong  side,  care  must  be  taken 
to  turn  the  lap  to  the  wrong  side  and  to  inclose  the  raw 


FIG.  135.  —  Front  of  tailored  shirt  waist. 

edge  in  the  f"  tuck  on  the  inside  of  the  plait  where  the 
stitching  is  placed.  Lay  pattern  economically  and  trace. 
Allow  for  seams  and  fitting  as  described  for  lingerie  waist. 

Seams  for  tailored  waists  should  be  flat  felled  on  the  right 
side  \"  finished.     Attach  belting  and  hem  at  bottom  as  de- 


340  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

scribed  for  lingerie  waist.  Finish  neck  with  shaped  collar 
band  f "  wide  finished  at  center  back.  For  draft  of  shirt 
sleeve  use  pattern  under  teacher's  direction  (see  Figs.  135 
and  136).  Finish  with  \"  flat  fell.  Placket  opening  should 
be  cut  I"  to  the  under  side  from  fold  of  sleeve.  Face 


FIG.  136. — Back  of  tailored  shirt  waist. 

in  tailored  fashion  with  pointed  facing  1 J"  wide  finished  and 
in  length  from  cuff  5"  to  top  of  point.  The  opening  from 
bottom  is  cut  4".  The  cuff  is  a  straight  piece  cut  lengthwise 
of  material  3"  wide  finished  and  length  according  to  wrist 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  341 

measurement.  To  make  the  placket  two  pieces  are  re- 
quired. One  is  cut  twice  the  length  of  the  opening  plus  \" 
and  2"  wide.  The  second  strip  is  If''  wide  and  once  the 
length  of  the  opening  plus  1J"  for  point  above  opening. 
Baste  the  long  strip  to  side  of  opening,  which  will  be  under 
when  finished.  Begin  at  bottom  of  sleeve.  Baste  with 
right  side  of  strip  to  wrong  side  of  sleeve  in  simple  seam 
and  stitch  to  end  of  vent.  Half  the  strip  will  be  unat- 
tached. Turn  strip  to  right  side  of  sleeve,  turn  in  J",  and 
baste  so  finished  facing  will  be  1J"  wide  finished.  In  folding 
over  this  facing,  place  so  that  J"  extends  at  the  vent  side 
and  the  seam  taken  falls  J"  away  from  the  edge.  Fold  the  re- 
maining half  of  the  facing  so  it  is  the  same  width  as  attached 
half,  baste  edges,  and  fold  this  basted  strip  so  that  it  lies 
flat  on  the  half  attached.  Fold  sleeve  portion  so  that  it  lies 
flat  on  the  strip  and  baste.  The  raw  edges  of  this  upper 
half  must  be  covered  with  the  second  strip,  cut  If".  Prepare 
this  strip  by  turning  and  basting  edges  so  it  is  1J"  wide. 
Place  end  to  bottom  of  sleeve  and  baste  flat  on  top  over  the 
width  of  the  under  facing,  and  covering  the  raw  edges.  Turn 
top  in  point,  cut  away  unnecessary  thickness,  and  baste 
to  portion  of  sleeve  above  opening.  Stitch  once  carefully 
close  to  the  edge.  Prepare  cuff  and  turn  edges  evenly  and 
baste  edges  where  they  are  to  be  attached.  Slip  gathered 
sleeve  within,  with  the  seam  of  the  sleeve  I"  back  of 
the  center  of  the  cuff.  Baste  in  place  so  the  gathers  fall 
principally  on  the  top  half.  Stitch  once  all  around  cuff  and 
across  bottom  where  attached.  A  second  row  \"  from  the 
row  where  attached  gives  a  neat  finish.  The  sleeves  are 
located  as  described  for  lingerie  waist,  and  gathers  adjusted. 
Baste  the  bias  lawn  seam  binding  for  armhole,  holding  it  on 
the  sleeve  side  instead  of  waist  side  as  for  lingerie  waist. 
Stitch  this  on  with  the  sleeve.  Fold  binding  back  flat 


342 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


against  the  waist  so  that  it  covers  the  seam  edges.  Baste, 
and  on  right  side  place  two  rows  of  stitching  about  \"  apart  so 
that  the  finish  is  like  the  felled  seams.  This  double  row  of 
stitching  falls  on  the  seam  binding. 

Norfolk  jacket  waist,  of  cotton  cloth,  to  be  worn  with  tai- 
lored skirt  (see  Fig.  137).  Cut  from  commercial  pattern. 
Use  same  material  as  skirt.  Baste 
shoulder  and  underarm  seams  and  if 
necessary  alter,  locating  shoulder  and 
underarm  seams  as  suggested  for  fitting 
lingerie  waist.  Trace  alterations  and 
seam  the  shoulders  only,  with  seam  on 
right  side.  Place  yoke  seam  so  as  to 
correspond  with  shoulder  seams  and  raw 
edges  inside.  Baste  carefully.  Locate 
position  of  straps,  which  should  be  pre- 
pared by  basting  and  stitching  only 
at  the  place  where  belt  will  pass. 
Baste  and  stitch  straps  in  place.  Face 
fronts;  seam  underarms  with  flat  fell 
seams ;  hem  bottom  with  1"  hem.  Pre- 
pare collar,  stitch  to  facing,  turn  inside 
out,  and  attach  to  the  waist  so  that 
hemming  down  by  hand  of  the  facing 
is  around  the  neck  on  inside  of  waist. 
Prepare  sleeves  with  cuffs  as  pattern 
directs.  Finish  with  buttons  and  but- 
tonholes and  necktie  if  desired. 

One-piece  gingham  dress.  —  Use  drafted  pattern  of  shirt 
waist  and  foundation  skirt  pattern.  Any  suitable  wash  ma- 
terial can  be  used.  Select  style  from  fashion  book.  Prepare 
waist  according  to  directions  given  above  for  lingerie  or  tai- 
lored waist.  Prepare  skirt  as  suggested  for  tailored  skirt  or 


FIG.  137.  — Norfolk 
jacket  waist. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES 


343 


other  adaptation  of  foundation  skirt.  Do  not  finish  waist 
at  bottom  or  skirt  at  belt  or  bottom  hem.  Try  on  waist 
and  skirt  together.  Lap  at  the  waist  so  that  the  belt  of  the 
skirt  falls  in  the  right  place  on  the  waist,  pin  in  place  carefully. 
Finish  the  waist  with  a  belt  of  same  material,  braid  or  em- 
broidery trimming,  according  to  waist  decoration.  This  is 
placed  over  the  lap  of  skirt  and  waist  and  stitched  in  place. 
A  cord  may  also  be  used  to  finish  top  of  skirt,  if  belt  is  not 
desired.  Cut  away  unnecessary  portions  of  waist  below  the 
belt  line  and  finish  at  the  waistline  before  hem  is  placed  in 
bottom  of  skirt.  This  is  to  insure  evenness.  Simple  ging- 
ham dresses  can  be  made  with  square  or  round-cut  necks  or 
finished  for  Dutch  collars  and  cuffs  of  white 
linen.  Trimming  of  lace  or  embroidery  can 
be  used  for  decoration  according  to  the 
texture  of  the  material.  For  a  tub  dress  of 
this  character  the  seams  of  the  waist  should 
be  felled,  French  or  false  French,  and  the 
seams  of  the  skirt  overcasted.  For  conven- 
ience the  dress  can  be  opened  down  the  left 
side  of  the  front. 

One-piece  dimity  or  lawn  dress  (see  Fig. 
138).  —  This  can  also  be  made  from  the 
adapted  pattern  of  shirt  waist  and  skirt. 
Follow  directions  given  for  lingerie  waist 
and  foundation  skirt.  It  is  possible  to  use 
this  dress  for  graduation  and  to  make  and 
trim  it  in  a  suitable  way  for  this  purpose. 
If  time  permits,  some  simple  decoration  in  FIG.  138.— Sugges- 
hand  embroidery  can  be  placed  on  the  waist  tion  for  simPle 

-,        i  -r^ .      .  i  lingerie  dress, 

and    sleeves.      Dimity,    batistes,    Swisses, 

Persian  lawns,  white  cotton  voile,  are  all  suitable  for  this 

purpose.     The  waist  and  skirt  can  be  attached  as  described 


344          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

for  one-piece  gingham  dress.  For  girls  of  high  school  age, 
the  simple  lines  with  simple  decoration  are  much  more 
suitable  than  the  fussy,  elaborate,  and  overtrimmed  gradua- 
tion dresses  of  silk  one  sometimes  sees.  Study  carefully  the 
chapter  on  Costume  Design  before  you  decide  on  the  style 
for  your  graduation  gown. 

One-piece  wool  dress.  —  All  high  school  girls  should 
be  able  to  make  simple  wool  dresses  suitable  for  school. 
The  adapted  Peter  Thomson  styles  are  suitable  and  the  con- 
struction similar  to  the  middy  blouse.  A  commercial  pattern 
can  be  used  or  the  shirt  waist  and  foundation  skirt  pattern 
adapted.  The  kimono  waist  is  suitable  for  this  one-piece 
wool  dress.  If  desired,  cut  from  commercial  pattern.  Ma- 
terials such  as  serge  and  wool  dress  novelties  are  the  most 
satisfactory.  The  handling  of  wool  material  is  more  difficult 
than  cotton  and  necessitates  very  careful  basting  and  press- 
ing to  secure  a  neat  finish.  It  is  not  necessary  to  line  simple 
wool  dresses,  but  if  this  is  desired,  the  waist  can  be  made  over 
the  shirt  waist  lining.  The  material  for  a  wool  dress  should 
be  carefully  sponged  before  making.  This  is  sometimes 
done  at  the  store  where  goods  is  bought,  or  it  can  be  given  to 
a  local  tailor. 

For  the  skirt  use  the  adapted  foundation  skirt.  In  cutting 
out,  lay  pattern  economically  and  allow  1J"  for  seams  on 
wool.  Do  not  forget  to  allow  for  the  hem  at  the  bottom, 
usually  about  3"  to  4".  Baste.  Try  on  and  fit  as  sug- 
gested for  cotton  skirt.  Open  and  press  the  seams  on  the 
wrong  side.  Be  sure  to  place  a  wet  cheesecloth  over  the 
material  and  not  to  scorch  with  too  hot  an  iron.  Overcast 
if  material  is  easily  raveled.  If  of  firmer  cloth,  the  seams 
can  be  notched  or  pinked.  The  hem  of  the  skirt  is  not  fin- 
ished until  the  waist  and  skirt  have  been  attached.  There 
are  several  good  ways  of  finishing  the  hem.  It  can  be  turned 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  345 

once  and  catch-stitched  to  the  cloth.  This  can  be  done  so 
that  the  stitches  do  not  show  very  much  on  the  right  side. 
Another  way  is  to  use  Prussian  binding.  This  should  always 
be  held  a  little  full  when  used,  as  it  is  apt  to  shrink.  It  can 
be  stitched  to  the  top  edge  of  the  hem  by  machine  over- 
lapping so  that  it  does  not  pull  out,  and  then  finished  by 
hemming  by  hand  to  the  skirt.  It  is  never  advisable  to  turn 
a  woolen  hem  twice.  It  should  be  as  flat  as  possible,  and 
pressed  carefully.  The  placket  of  the  skirt  is  important. 
It  should  bear  some  relation  to  the  waist  for  the  sake  of  good 
line.  A  placket  opening  at  the  side  of  the  front  and  the 
waist  at  the  middle  does  not  help  to  make  long  lines.  Open 
the  placket  from  12"  to  14".  Some  soft  silk  can  be  used  for 
facing  sleeves,  neck,  and  placket.  For  the  underlap  of  the 
placket,  such  as  can  be  used  at  the  side  of  a  panel  front  open- 
ing, seam  binding  can  be  used  at  the  edge.  On  the  wrong 
side  of  this  lap,  on  the  line  where  the  eyes  for  fastening  should 
fall,  stitch  a  piece  of  Prussian  binding  for  strength.  The 
eyes  can  be  sewed  through  to  this.  For  finishing  the  upper 
lap,  take  a  piece  of  silk  3J"  by  14".  From  the  wrong  side, 
slip  it  within  the  fold  formed  by  the  tuck  of  the  panel.  This 
can  be  held  in  place  by  the  stitching  of  the  tuck.  Sew  on  the 
hooks,  two  close  together  near  top  and  others  about  f"  apart 
and  not  nearer  the  edge  than  \" .  The  placing  depends  some- 
what on  the  width  of  the  panel  tuck.  Fold  over  the  silk 
facing  and  turn  edge  so  that  it  covers  the  shank  of  the  hook. 
Hem  along  edge.  This  makes  a  very  neat  finish.  The  top 
of  the  skirt  if  attached  can  be  turned  at  the  top.  Shrink 
a  square  of  cambric  from  which  bias  strips  can  be  cut.  Place 
a  bias  strip  of  this  shrunken  cambric  at  the  top  where  the 
skirt  is  turned  over.  This  gives  strength  and  is  sufficient  to 
keep  it  in  shape  if  attached  to  the  waist.  If  separate,  hem 
the  belting  on  the  inside  to  the  top  edge  just  below  where 


346         SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

turned.  A  raised  waistline  is  usually  1 J"  above  the  normal. 
Mark  with  a  basting  in  fitting. 

For  the  waist,  use  commercial  pattern  or  drafted  shirt 
waist  pattern.  If  lining  of  cambric  is  to  be  used,  prepare  it 
by  holding  in  the  fullness  each  side  of  front  in  fitting  and 
laying  the  fullness  each  side  of  the  center  back  in  plaits. 
The  lining  is  not  absolutely  necessary  in  the  simple  one-piece 
wool  dress,  but  for  sake  of  cleanliness  can  be  slipped  in  and 
tacked  in  place.  Plan  outside  according  to  fashion  selected. 
Arrange  material  on  figure  to  get  the  desired  effect.  This  is 
really  modeling. 

It  is  also  possible  to  use  the  altered  commercial  pattern. 
The  sleeves  should  be  seamed  and  pressed  open  carefully 
on  sleeve  board.  Place  as  suggested  for  lingerie  waist.  Fin- 
ish sleeve  at  bottom  by  turning  desired  length,  basting,  and 
pressing.  Sew  on  hooks  and  eyes  and  face  with  same  silk  as 
that  used  for  the  placket.  The  necks  can  be  finished  for 
simple  Dutch  collars  of  linen  or  embroidery  or  for  standing 
collars.  The  waist  can  also  be  cut  out  V-shaped  or  round  and 
the  dress  worn  with  a  guimpe  of  net  or  embroidery.  The 
guimpe  can  be  cut  by  the  shirt  waist  pattern,  and  half  sleeves 
or  caps  used  to  hold  it  down  in  place.  In  turning  the  neck 
for  finish  use  a  piece  of  the  shrunken  cambric.  Cut  it  on  the 
bias  about  1"  wide,  and  in  turning  back  the  cloth  around 
the  opening,  turn  it  over  this  shrunken  cambric.  This  is  for 
strength  and  to  prevent  the  waist  from  losing  its  shape. 
The  facing  of  silk  should  be  cut  the  shape  of  the  neck  open- 
ing. 

In  attaching  skirt  to  waist  a  belting  can  be  placed  on  the 
outside  or  inside  of  the  waist  and  stitched.  The  skirt  can  be 
fastened  to  this  by  back-stitching  by  hand  or  by  stitching  be- 
low the  turned  top  of  the  skirt,  or  the  top  may  be  corded  if 
that  finish  is  being  used. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   DRESSES  347 

EXERCISES 

1.  Describe  the  use  of  felled  seams  on  a  tailored  shirt  -waist. 
How  is  the  lap  prepared  for  the  buttonholes,  where  there  is  a  right 
and  wrong  side  to  material  ? 

2.  How  are  the  gathers  distributed  and  the  sleeves  placed  in  a 
simple  lingerie  waist  ? 

3.  Make  a  shirt  waist  placket  in  paper  or  muslin  at  home  before 
making  it  on  the  waist. 

4.  Draw  a  sketch  of  the  arrangement  of  decoration  for  a  lingerie 
waist.     Make  a  sketch  of  a  simple  gingham  dress. 

5.  How  much  material  will  you  need  for  your  graduation  dress  ? 
Compute  the  cost.     Draw  sketch  of  it.     Bring  to  class  samples  of 
some  suitable  materials. 

6.  Bring  samples  to  class  of  suitable  wool  materials  for  school 
dress.     Compute  the  cost. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
MILLINERY 

EVERY  girl  enjoys  the  thought  of  being  able  to  produce  her 
own  hats.  Many  have  natural  deftness  of  touch  and  an 
aptitude  for  copying  and  designing ;  others  may  be  able  to 
acquire  this  to  a  certain  degree.  The  novice  with  or  without 
this  natural  aptitude  must  practice  and  practice  again  in 
order  to  secure  neat,  faultless  results  and  to  improve  in  de- 
sign and  the  ability  to  handle  work  lightly  and  delicately. 
It  is  not  expected  that  the  average  high  school  girl  will  have 
time  during  her  course  to  become  very  expert.  It  will  be 
a  satisfaction  to  learn  the  most  common  processes  and  how 
to  choose  hats  adapted  to  face  and  coloring  even  if  later  one 
buys  all  one's  hats.  Although  there  may  not  be  much  time 
for  millinery  in  the  average  course,  with  such  elementary 
principles  and  practice  in  making  hats  for  herself  and  friends, 
the  girl  of  even  slight  ability  can  accomplish  much. 

The  selection  of  style  in  headgear.  —  In  the  discussion 
of  the  importance  of  dress,  the  general  principles  of  line, 
rhythm,  balance,  and  unity,  and  color  were  discussed.  These 
principles  apply  to  the  selection  or  planning  of  hats  as  well 
as  to  gowns  (see  Chap.  XIX).  The  hat,  by  being  too  large  or 
out  of  proportion  to  the  figure,  may  change  the  appearance 
of  the  whole  silhouette  and  so  overbalance  it  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  figure  is  anything  but  pleasing.  The  hat  is 
the  most  difficult  article  to  select  for  a  woman's  wardrobe. 
Good  taste  in  selection  means  a  combined  knowledge  of  line, 
form,  and  color  as  well  as  the  fitness  of  things.  The  first 

348 


MILLINERY  349 

rule,  then,  is  to  choose  or  plan  hats  in  relation  to  the  whole 
figure  rather  than  to  the  head  alone.  This  means  that  a  hat 
should  be  selected  before  a  full-length  mirror  or  planned  with 
the  full  figure  in  mind. 

The  second  rule  is  that  the  lines  of  the  hat  should  be 
adapted  to  the  lines  of  the  face.  The  round  face,  with  re- 
trousse nose,  looks  best  in  a  hat  that  is  slightly  tilted  in  front 
or  with  a  rolling  brim  at  the  front  and  side.  A  person  with  a 
round  face  should  not  wear  narrow  hats  that  bend  over  the 
face.  The  long,  thin  face  will  be  accentuated  by  wearing 
high,  pointed  trimming.  Trimming  that  emphasizes  the 
width,  and  a  brim  that  is  rolling  and  wide  bring  a  better  effect. 
If  the  brim  is  worn  slightly  forward,  rather  than  rolled  as  for 
the  round  face,  the  tendency  of  the  shadows  is  to  shorten  the 
length  of  the  face.  In  adapting  the  lines  of  the  hat  to  the 
head  much  depends  on  the  style  of  dressing  the  hair.  The 
long  face  is  difficult  to  suit  in  headgear  if  the  hair  is  drawn 
back  sharply  at  the  sides,  and  the  round  face  with  the  hair 
worn  fluffy  may  look  more  round  than  if  the  hair  were  drawn 
slightly  back. 

The  care  of  the  hair  and  skin  is  very  important,  for  the  hat 
tends  to  emphasize  the  defects  as  well  as  good  points  of  the 
wearer.  A  neat  appearance  and  becoming  arrangement  of 
the  hair  have  much  to  do  with  the  becomingness  of  a  hat. 

Young  girls  should  be  especially  careful  about  the  use  of 
bows  on  the  hair.  Extremely  large  bows  are  not  in  good 
taste,  but  only  overemphasize  one's  defects.  The  bow  to 
be  becoming  should  conform  to  the  lines  of  the  hair  and  face, 
and  the  color  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  complexion 
and  hair. 

The  aim  is  to  wear  what  is  becoming  and  adapted  to  one's 
style  rather  than  to  follow  the  extremes  of  fashion.  The 
styles  of  each  season  can  as  a  rule  be  adapted  to  suit  indi- 


350  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

viduals.  This  is  the  milliner's  business,  to  study  faces  and 
styles  and  relate  the  two.  When  the  individual  style  of 
hairdressing  is  changed  according  to  the  prevailing  mode, 
styles  in  hats  are  usually  more  easily  suited  to  the  individual, 
as  the  season's  hats  are  adapted  to  the  style  of  hairdressing. 

The  third  rule  is  to  select  color  that  is  related  to  the  skin 
as  well  as  the  hair.  White,  for  instance,  is  not  becoming  to  a 
pale  skin,  but  rather  to  a  fresh,  rosy  complexion.  Black  has 
a  tendency  to  make  the  complexion  look  white  and  should 
not  be  worn  next  to  the  face  by  those  with  dark,  swarthy 
skin.  Brown  is  most  becoming  to  the  person  with  auburn 
hair  and  good  complexion,  and  gray  to  eyes  and  hair  of  that 
color.  The  study  of  contrasting  colors,  as  suggested  in  the 
discussion  of  colors  in  dress,  is  one  that  should  be  adapted 
to  the  selection  of  color  in  headgear.  A  person  with  fair 
hair  and  skin  must  wear  very  different  contrasting  colors 
from  the  type  of  person  with  brown  or  auburn  hair.  The 
blending  of  colors  in  trimming  is  a  study  in  itself  and  the 
suggestions  given  under  dress  and  house  decoration  in  relation 
to  color  apply  also  to  hats.  A  study  of  color  theory  in 
the  art  classes  will  help  one  to  make  pleasing  combina- 
tions in  hat  trimming. 

In  the  art  classes  it  may  be  possible  under  your  teacher's 
direction  to  sketch  some  hats.  These  should  show  the  rela- 
tion of  lines  to  faces.  Begin  as  soon  as  possible  to  cultivate 
careful  observation  of  hats  that  appear  pleasing  on  people 
and  the  good  and  bad  lines  of  hats  in  shops.  Simple  lines 
will  be  found  the  most  satisfactory  and  in  best  taste. 

A  fourth  rule  is  to  wear  the  hat  properly.  The  prevailing 
styles  do  not  suit  all  faces,  but  can  be  adapted,  and  hats 
should  be  well  placed  on  the  head  and  worn  in  correct  posi- 
tion so  that  they  conform  to  the  outline  of  the  hair. 

The  making  and  covering  of  a  buckram  hat.  —  This  is  a 


MILLINERY  351 

very  easy  kind  of  hat  to  make.  One  yard  of  milliner's 
buckram  is  sufficient,  one  roll  of  hat  wire,  and  a  yard  and  a 
quarter  of  velvet  22 "  wide,  for  the  outside.  The  under 
brim  can  be  faced  with  satin. 

I.  To  cut  patterns  for  brim,  top,  crown,  and  side  crown. 

A  circle  about  7"  in  diameter  makes  a  good  top  crown. 
An  eighth-inch  square  of  paper  folded  four  times  can  be  cut 
into  a  good  circle.  After  folding  until  cone-shaped,  measure 
3|"  from  the  point  of  the  cone  on  both  sides  and  cut 
off  edge  in  a  curved  line.  Open,  mark  the  outline  of  this 
pattern  on  the  buckram,  and  cut  out.  No  extra  allowance 
is  necessary. 

To  make  the  brim  pattern,  cut  in  same  way  as  described, 
a  circle  IS"  in  diameter  from  a  square  20".  Fold  the  square 
in  cone  shape  and  measure  9"  along  sides  of  cone,  before 
trimming  in  curved  line.  Measure  also  4"  from  the  point 
on  both  sides  of  the  cone  and  cut  a  curved  line  for  the  inner 
circle  or  head  size  of  the  brim.  This  will  give  a  large  circle 
with  hole  in  center  for  head.  Fold  this  ring  once,  and 
notch  at  the  center  front  and  center  back.  Cut  through 
back  fold.  From  the  center  front  notch,  cut  a  slash  to 
within  \"  of  inside  head  circle.  Slash  the  eight  radii  (which 
will  make  every  other  one)  in  the  same  way.  Lap  the 
edges  slashed  about  \"  and  pin.  This  makes  a  curved  sec- 
tion and  pattern  of  a  mushroom  hat  brim.  Mark  this  outline 
of  pattern  on  the  buckram,  allowing  one  inch  on  the  inside 
around  head  size  and  one  inch  on  one  end  for  lapping.  The 
one  inch  on  the  inside  will  form  a  bandeau  when  slashed 
(see  Fig.  139). 

The  side  crown  pattern  is  made  from  a  strip  of  paper. 
As  the  head  size  and  top  of  crown  size  differ,  this  straight 
strip  must  be  slashed  and  lapped  to  fit.  A  strip  28 "  X  4J" 
is  a  good  one  to  start  with.  Mark  center  of  this  strip  for 


352 


SHELTER   AND    CLOTHING 


center  front.  Slash  to  within  \"  on  opposite  edge.  At 
each  side  of  this  slash  cut  three  more,  with  a  distance  of 
3|"  between  the  slashes.  Lap  the  edges  of  the  slashes  about 
$"  and  pin.  The  lapped  edge  is  now  only  22J".  Mark  out- 
line of  pattern  on  the  buckram  with  one  inch  allowance  for 
lap  at  end  (see  Fig.  139). 


FIG.  139.  —  Lapping  of  slashed  paper  pattern  for  side  crown.    The  method 
of  lapping  is  the  same  for  the  brim. 

This  pattern  is  not  extreme  and  is  typical  of  many  pat- 
terns that  can  be  cut  for  all  styles  and  shapes  of  hats.  The 
necessary  measurements  are :  (1)  diameter  of  hat,  back  to 
front,  (2)  size  of  head,  (3)  height  of  side  crown,  (4)  diameter 
of  tip. 

II.  To  copy  a  style  one  should  take  measurements  from 
the  inside.     A  tape  measure  is  used. 

Brim :  Outside  edge, 

Width  of  brim,  center  front,  sides  and  back, 
Headline, 
Crown  :  Diameter  of  tip, 

Size  around  tip, 

Depth  of  crown, 

Base  of  side  crown, 
Note  any  unusual  features. 

III.  To  wire  the  buckram  hat. 

Top  of  crown.  —  Cut  wire  24"  long.  Lay  wire  on  buck- 
ram ^ven  with  edge,  sew  with  buttonhole  stitches  about 
|"  apart  (see  Fig.  140).  A  milliner's  needle  No.  4  and 


MILLINERY 


353 


FIG.  140.  —  Wiring  of  top  crown. 
The  method  is  the  same  for  side 
crown  and  brim. 


No.  30  cotton  or  milliner's  thread  are  necessary.     Do  not 

let  wire  slip ;  it  should  lie  even  with  edge  but  on  the  under 

side  of  the  top  of  the  crown. 

Lap  the  ends  of  wire  2"  and  sew 

securely.     In  opening  the  roll  of 

wire,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 

tangle   it.     Cut    the   fastening 

wire  and  slip  roll   on   the   left 

arm  and  shake  it  until  it  has 

loosened  into   large   rings    and 

has  lost  its  spring.     This  saves 

much  trouble. 

Side   of  crown.  —  Wire   base 

only,  using  same  method  as  for 

top  of  crown.     Sew  the  unwired  or  top  edge  of  the  side 

crown  to  the  wired  edge  of  \:he  top  crown    (see  Fig.  141). 

The  wire  should  all 
lie  on  the  inside  and 
not  show  from  the 
outside  of  the  crown. 
Start  at  the  center 
back,  using  the  but- 
tonhole  stitch. 
When  finished,  lap 
ends  at  back  and 

FIG.   141.  —  Sewing  the  side  crown  to  the  top    hold    down    with 
crown  of  the  buckram  crown.  .    ,       J .  1    ,  . 

catch-stitching   (see 
Chap.  XVII  for  description  of  the  stitch). 

Wiring  of  brim.  —  Lap  ends  of  brim  one  inch  in  back  and 
hold  down  with  catch-stitching.  Cut  a  wire  for  outside 
edge  of  brim  3"  longer  than  the  edge.  Begin  at  back  where 
brim  is  lapped.  Sew  as  described  with  buttonhole  stitch 
and  lap  wire  3''  at  back.  At  the  head  size  slash  the  one- 

2A 


354          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

inch  allowance,  make  the  slashes  one  inch  apart  and  one 
inch  deep.  Bend  these  slashes  up  and  at  the  bottom  of 
slashes  or  lower  head  size  place  a  wire  two  inches  longer 
than  the  head  size.  Sew  with  buttonhole  stitches  and  lap 
ends  at  center  back  two  inches.  Cut  another  wire  same 
length  and  sew  it  to  the  upper  edges  of  the  slashed  head 
size,  lapping  ends  in  back.  This  makes  a  one-inch  bandeau 
of  the  same  size  on  both  edges. 

This  method  of  wiring  buckram  frames  can  be  adapted  to 
many  shapes. 

IV.  To  cover  the  buckram  hat. 

The  upper  side  of  brim.  —  Preparation  of  frame  for  cover- 
ing. Bind  the  edge  of  the  brim  with  one-inch  bias  strip  of 


FIG.  142.  —  Covering  buckram  frame. 

thin  crinoline.  Sew  with  long  running  stitch.  Place  the 
velvet  over  the  top  of  the  brim  so  that  the  bias  lies  from 
front  to  back.  Make  rough  fit  first.  Pin  around  edge  every 
two  inches  and  smooth  fullness  towards  the  back  from  the 
front.  Slash  velvet  at  head  size  so  it  may  drop  over  the 
bandeau.  Stretch  velvet  from  head  size  to  edge  of  brim ; 
fit  and  pin  smoothly.  Cut  velvet  at  center  back.  Fold 
under  one  edge  \"  and  pin  (see  Fig.  142).  Fold  in  other 
edge  \"  at  center  back,  so  that  the  edges  exactly  meet.  Sew 


MILLINERY  355 

with  tiny  slip  stitches.  Cut  velvet  around  edge  of  brim, 
allowing  \"  to  turn  under.  Catch-stitch  this  turned  edge 
to  the  buckram  carefully  so  stitches  will  not  show  through. 
Pin  crown  in  position.  Sew  it  with  long  stitches  (running) 
to  the  brim. 

The  crown.  —  When  it  is  to  be  smooth  finished,  lay  velvet 
over  the  crown ;  cut  so  it  is  large  enough  to  extend  half  an 
inch  from  the  tip  at  the  sides.  Sew  in  place  with  long 
running  stitches. 

The  side  crown,  when  smoothly  covered,  is  finished  with 
a  true  bias  piece  of  velvet.  For  the  dimensions  of  the  hat 
described,  a  piece  29"  X  5|"  will  be  long  enough.  Join  the 
velvet  along  selvedges  to  make  piece  long  enough.  Turn 
under  \"  top  and  bottom  of  strip ;  place  around  crown  and 
pin  in  place,  stretching  at  the  bottom  edge  at  base  of  crown, 
but  holding  the  upper  edge  so  as  not  to  stretch  it.  The 
piecing  in  the  velvet  can  be  placed  where  the  trimming  will 
fall.  Pin  the  ends  of  the  velvet,  fold  under  \"  at  the  end,  and 
blind-stitch  in  straight  seam. 

The  crown  can  be  covered  with  a  full  tam-o'-shanter  if 
desired.  This  is  made  of  a  circle  of  velvet  about  18"  in 
diameter.  Gather  at  edge  with  two  draw  strings  and  pull 
in  to  fit  the  base  of  the  crown.  Pin  in  place ;  sew  flat  and 
cover  sewing  with  a  true  bias  strip  of  velvet  one  inch  in 
width  turned  at  both  edges.  The  fullness  of  crown  can  be 
tacked  to  suit  the  face. 

The  underside  of  brim.  —  The  underside  of  brim  can  be 
faced  with  velvet,  silk,  or  satin.  If  thin  silk  or  satin  is  used, 
a  layer  of  cotton  sheet  wadding  should  be  cut  to  fit  and 
laid  on  the  under  brim.  Turn  the  hat  with  under  brim  up. 
Lay  satin  on  brim  with  bias  from  front  to  back.  Pin  in 
place  at  front,  first  at  edge,  then  at  head  size.  Push  the  full- 
ness to  back  and  to  the  inside  of  hat.  Fit  facing,  pinning  at 


356  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

outside  edge  and  then  at  head.  Fit  and  smooth  until  sur- 
face is  without  wrinkles.  Trim  at  edge,  leaving  \".  Slip- 
stitch  seam  at  center  back  as  on  top  covering.  The  edge  of 
the  facing  can  be  finished  at  center  back.  Pin  a  few  inches 
and  then  sew,  using  a  stitch  which  will  be  \"  long  under  the 
wire,  and  a  tiny  stitch  through  the  top.  Sew  on  the  satin 
side,  so  that  the  stitches  do  not  show  on  the  velvet.  By 
making  a  groove  with  the  needle  under  the  wire  as  the 
sewing  proceeds,  the  stitches  will  be  concealed,  as  they  are 
drawn  beneath  the  wire  and  a  cord  effect  only  is  seen  at  the 
edge.  At  the  center  back  tie  the  ends  and  finish  the  sewing, 
lapping  the  wire  one  fourth  of  an  inch. 

The  satin  at  the  head  size  is  slashed  until  it  fits  and  is 
sewed  to  the  headband. 

This  style  of  hat  can  be  trimmed  effectively  with  wings, 
feathers,  or  large  satin  bows.  If  the  tam-o'-shanter  crown 
is  used,  it  can  be  trimmed  effectively  at  the  base  with  a 
band  of  fur  or  rich  embroidery.  The  brim  can  be  bent  in 
various  ways  to  suit  individual  faces. 

The  lining  of  the  hat.  —  Hats  can  be  lined  with  taffeta, 
China,  or  Sicilian  silk.  The  length  should  be  1"  longer 
than  the  head  size,  and  about  2"  more  in  depth.  Turn  a 
hem  and  run  at  edge,  making  casing  wide  enough  for  a 
ribbon  to  slip  through.  The  hat  lining  is  put  in  after  the 
hat  is  otherwise  finished.  Place  the  raw  edge  inside  the 
base  of  the  crown,  begin  at  center  back  and  sew,  using  two 
tiny  stitches  one  over  the  other  and  placing  them  \"  apart. 
These  are  taken  exactly  on  the  headline.  Finish  at  back 
by  lapping  so  that  the  end  of  the  outside  when  finished  will 
be  turned  in.  Sew  up  in  seam  or  flat  with  running  stitches. 
Draw  up  with  ribbon.  A  small  square  or  circle  of  the  lining 
silk  can  be  placed  in  the  top  of  the  crown  to  complete  the 
finish  and  prevent  straw  or  wire  from  catching  the  hair. 


MILLINERY  357 

Making  and  covering  a  wire  frame.  —  Every  girl  should 
learn  to  make  wire  frames.  The  construction  is  not  diffi- 
cult, after  a  little  practice.  It  is  possible  to  buy  wire  frames 
inexpensively,  but  the  styles  are  not  usually  the  exclusive 
ones.  If  one  knows  how  to  construct  a  frame,  it  is  very 
easy  to  remodel  those  one  buys,  or  to  plan  any  variety  of 
shape  with  round  or  square  crowns,  rolling  or  round  brims, 
such  as  one  cannot  purchase.  The  shape  of  the  wire  frame 
then  will  depend  on  the  prevailing  styles.  Visit  the  milli- 
nery shops  and  study  the  fashion  sheets  for  hats.  The 
following  description  of  how  to  make  a  wire  frame  is  typical 
and  can  be  adapted  to  the  style. 

For  the  frame  making,  the  following  materials  are  neces- 
sary :- 

1  roll  of  frame  wire,  1  spool  of  tie  wire,  1  yard  of  thin 
crinoline,  pincers,  tape  measure,  pencil. 

In  preparation,  wind  off  some  of  the  tie  wire.  Fifteen  turns 
around  three  fingers  will  enable  one  to  cut  the  lengths  evenly 
and  all  at  once.  After  winding,  cut  at  both  ends.  There 
will  be  thirty  pieces  about  two  inches  in  length.  Open  the 
roll  of  wire  carefully  as  discussed  above.  In  measuring  wire, 
always  measure  with  the  tape  on  the  outside  of  the  curve. 

I.  Practice  lapping  and  tying  wires.     Lap  two  pieces  of 
frame  wire,  5"  in  length ;  hold  the  two-inch  piece  of  tie  wire 
with  the  first  finger  and  thumb  of  left  hand  against  the 
frame    wires    (see   Fig.    143).     Twist    the   tie   wire    firmly 
twice  around  the  frame  wires  with  right  hand,  and  twist 
the  ends  of  this  wire  together  around  each  other.     Then 
twist  the  tie  wire  ends  with  the  pincers  and  break  close. 
Practice  until  you  can  do  this  tying  firmly.     Then  practice 
crossing  wires  at  right  angles  and  tying  those. 

II.  To  make  a  wire  frame.     The  crown  and  brim  are 
made  separately.     The  following  is  a  simple  shape  with 


358          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

brim  rolling  at  left  side.     This  can  be  varied  according  to 

style  and  made  with  oval  or  square  crown.  It  is  typical  of 
how  to  make  a  wire  frame.  Mushroom, 
sailor,  turban,  and  other  shapes  can  be 
made,  using  the  same  method,  after  accu- 
rate measurements  have  been  decided  upon. 
The  brim.  —  Make  the  head  wires  first, 
22"  of  wire  plus  2"  for  lapping.  Mark 
the  twenty-two-inch  point.  Make  two 
circles,  same  size;  lap  ends  two  inches 
and  tie  both  ends.  Divide  head  size  into 
eight  equal  divisions.  Mark  wires  of  both 
'J  ^^s*  circles  with  pencil.  Measure  carefully, 
beginning  at  center  of  lapping  of  wires, 
which  is  the  back.  The  marks  should  be 
2f "  apart.  For  the  spokes  of  the  brim  cut 

FIG.  143.  — Method  eight  wires  10"  long.  At  each  mark  on 
ortwisting  the  tie  the  hea(}  wires>  a  spoke  wjre  js  to  be  at- 
tached by  being  wrapped  about  it.  Two 

inches  from  the  end  of  each  spoke  wire  make  a  bend  with 

the  pincers.      Take  the  spoke  wire  in  the  right  hand  and 

place  bend  inside  of  one 

of  the  head   circles   at 

center  back  at  the  place 

marked.      Twist    once 

around  the  circle  wire 

very   close   and    tight. 

This  requires  practice. 

One     inch     above     this        FIG.  144.  —  Detail  of  method  of  twisting 
•   ,  ,  i         ,  spokes  about  head  wires. 

twist  on  the  short  end 

of  the  spoke  wire  place  the  second  head  size  circle  and  twist 
the  spoke  about  it  (see  Fig.  144).  The  center  back  spoke  is 
now  in  place,  attached  to  the  two  head  circles.  Follow  the 


MILLINERY  359 

markings  carefully  and  attach  the  center  front  spoke  by  same 
method.  Then  the  center  left  side  and  the  center  right, 
working  with  opposites  until  all  spokes  are  in  position  (see 
Fig.  145) .  Straighten  out  spokes  and  roll  up  the  ends  at 
one  side  as  if  for  brim,  keeping  the  line  of  the  various  radii 


FIG.  145.  — Spokes  of  a  brim  in  place. 

straight  from  the  center.  The  edge  wires  and  brace  wires 
for  the  brim  come  next.  As  the  hat  rolls  at  one  side,  the 
spokes  will  be  longer  on  that  side.  It  is  necessary  to  measure 
the  length  of  each  spoke  from  the  lower  head  size  wire. 
Back  4i",  left  side  back  6",  left  side  1",  left  side  front  6", 
front  4f  ",  right  side  front,  side  and  side  back  at  right  all 
4J".  Bend  upward  with  pincers  at  marked  places.  The 
edge  wire  is  to  be  placed  at  the  bent  places,  in  spokes.  Cut 
52"  piece  of  wire,  which  will  allow  4"  for  lap  at  back.  Mark 
the  distance  on  the  edge  wire  to  the  left  between  spokes. 
From  the  middle  of  the  four-inch  lap  to  the  left,  mark  5J", 
12,  18,  25,  31,  36J,  42,  48,  which  is  the  middle  of  the  back. 
Place  edge  wire  in  position  and  twist  each  spoke  about  it  at 


360 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


the  marked  point  on  the  edge  wire.  Lap  the  ends  and  tie 
twice  at  center  back.  The  brace  wires  are  placed  next  and 
keep  the  spokes  in  position.  They  are  circles  cut  according 
to  dimensions,  lapped  and  tied  and  placed  flat  on  the  under- 
side of  the  brim  and  tied  to  each  spoke  with  tie  wire.  Cut 
the  brace  wires  45",  37",  33",  and  27"  long.  Two  inches 
are  allowed  on  each  for  lapping.  The  largest  circle  is  placed 
one  inch  from  the  edge  wire  on  the  right  side  and  If"  from 
it  on  the  left,  and  the  other  three  divide  the  space  evenly 
about  one  inch  apart. 

The  crown.  —  If  this  is  to  be  dome-shaped,  make  the 
base  wire  32"  plus  2"  for  lapping.  Tie  in  circle.  Divide 
this  circle  into  eight  parts,  4"  between  each  mark. 
Cut  four  crown  spokes  each  20"  long.  Bend  with  pin- 
cers one  inch  at  each  end  of  the  spokes.  Place  bend  in- 

side of  base  wire  at  point 
marked  and  turn  the  one  inch 
of  the  crown  spokes  around 
the  base  wire  at  the  eight 
places  marked.  Place  these 
by  opposites  (see  Fig.  146).. 
Shape  the  dome  as  desired  and 
tie  the  four  spokes  at  center 
with  one  tie  wire.  Five  brace 
w^68  are  enough  for  the  crown. 
These  are  placed  about  If" 
apart  and  tied  to  the  spokes  as 
the  braces  were  tied  to  the  brim.  Measure  for  the  brace 
wires  by  holding  wire  around  the  dome-shaped  crown  and 
allowing  2"  for  lap  on  each  wire.  This  completes  the 
crown  of  the  hat.  A  square  crown  is  easily  made  by  same 
method  with  the  measurements  of  the  diameter  of  the  tip 
and  depth  of  crown  (see  Fig.  147). 


FIG.  146.  -Two  of  the  cown  wires 
placed  for  crown  by  opposites. 


MILLINERY 


361 


Wire  hats  can  be  covered  with  crinoline  or  cape  net,  and 
the  final  covering  can  be  of  velvet,  cloth,  or  straw. 

III.  To  cover  with  thin  crinoline.  This  must  be  of  a 
light  quality  to  fit  into  all  the  curves.  Do  not  pull  too  tightly 
and  bend  the  frame.  Hold  under- 
side of  brim  up  and  lay  crinoline 
over  it.  Pin  over  the  edge  wire 
and  lower  head  size  wire,  working 
from  front  to  back,  first  on  one  side 
and  then  on  the  other.  Cut  full- 
ness away  at  center  back,  lap  over 
one  inch,  and  pin  over  back  spoke. 
This  is  the  first  fitting ;  go  over  it 
again  to  remove  wrinkles,  but  guard  against  making  it  too 
tight.  Slash  at  head  size  space  at  each  spoke  and  halfway 
between.  Turn  up  the  slashed  ends  and  pin  to  head  size 
wires  (see  Fig.  148).  Sew  with  even  running  stitches  first 


FIG.  147.  —  Square  edged 
crown  showing  crossing  of 
wires. 


FIG.  148.  —  Covering  brim  of  wire  frame  with  crinoline. 


362 


SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 


around  upper  head  size  wire,  then  around  edge  wire ;  place 
stitches  just  inside  the  wire.  Trim  off  extra  crinoline,  leaving 
only  half  inch  at  edge  wire  where  turned. 

The  crown  can  be  covered  by  laying  a  piece  of  crinoline 
over  the  top  of  the  crown,  smoothing  it  over  the  spokes, 
and  pinning  fullness  in  little  plaits  at  the  base  where  it  is 

turned  under  base  wire 
(see  Fig.  149).  Sew 
around  with  running 
stitches  and  trim  off  on 
the  inside. 

IV.  To  sew  straw  for 
covering  wire  frame. 
Bind  the  edge  of  the 
brim  with  straw,  using 
the  running  stitch.  If 
the  straw  is  too  thick 
and  this  makes  a  clumsy 
edge,  bind  it  with  a  one-inch  bias  strip  of  velvet,  satin,  or 
silk ;  use  running  stitch. 

In  sewing  straw  use  No.  40  or  No.  50  cotton  thread  of 
same  color  as  straw.  Silk  should  not  be  used,  since  it  cuts 
the  straw.  Begin  with  the  top  of  the  brim  a  little  to  one 
side  of  center  back.  Sew  the  straw  so  that  one  edge  is  even 
with  the  brim.  The  stitches  should  be  small  and  concealed 
under  a  weaver  of  the  straw  on  the  upper  side  and  about 
half  an  inch  long  on  the  underside  of  brim.  Do  not  draw 
the  thread  too  tight,  for  every  impression  shows.  Sew  only 
on  the  outside  edge.  Lap  the  second  row  over  the  first  as 
little  as  possible.  The  braid  is  continuous  for  the  brim. 
Sew  the  second  row  so  that  it  also  holds  the  inner  edge  of 
the  first  row  of  straw  with  the  one  sewing.  The  inside  edge 
of  each  row  must  be  held  in  slightly  to  fit  and  lie  flat.  Carry 


FIG.   149.  —  Covering  crown  with  crino- 
line.   Notice  plaits  at  base. 


MILLINERY  363 

the  straw  round  and  round  the  frame.  Care  must  be  taken 
in  passing  from  one  row  to  another  to  have  the  transition 
gradual,  and  in  rounding  to  make  a  good  curve.  If  one  side 
of  the  brim  is  wider  and  rolls,  continue  with  the  straw  until 
the  narrow  side  of  the  brim  is  covered.  Then  fill  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  wide  side,  which  is  uncovered,  with  sections 
of  the  circle,  cutting  each  section  separately.  The  under 
brim  is  covered  the  same  way. 

To  sew  straw  for  the  crown,  one  can  begin  at  the  base  or 
tip  of  crown.  To  begin  at  center  of  tip,  bend  straw  to 
form  a  good  circle  in  center,  sew  as  for  a  flat  mat  with  the 
same  stitch  as  for  brim.  Occasionally  lay  the  sewed  straw 
over  the  frame  to  fit.  Continue  to  the  base.  This  is*  ac- 
complished more  easily  if  the  braid  is  pinned  four  or  five 
inches  ahead  before  sewed.  A  tam-o'-shanter  crown  of 
straw  is  started  at  the  center  and  sewed  round  and  round 
in  a  mat  or  plateau  until  it  is  about  10"  in  diameter,  accord- 
ing to  size  desired.  Draw  in  gradually  in  sewing  until  it  is 
crown-shaped. 

Another  way  to  sew  braid  for  the  crown  is  to  begin  at 
the  base  and  sew  around  so  that  the  first  row  is  even  with 
the  base.  The  second  row  is  overlapped  and  a  gradual 
transition  made  to  the  top.  Finish  the  top  neatly.  A  hole 
can  be  made  through  the  crinoline  at  the  center  of  tip  and 
the  ends  brought  through.  They  should  be  sewed  flat  on 
the  inside. 

In  straw  sewing,  much  depends  on  the  uniformity  of  the 
lapping.  A  hat  which  has  uneven  rows  is  not  well  made. 
This  uniformity  of  width  can  with  care  be  preserved  by 
thinking  about  it  as  each  row  is  turned. 

Bow  making  can  be  practiced  in  paper  or  cheap  cambric 
muslin,  if  no  old  ribbon  is  available.  There  are  a  few  simple 
bows  which  are  very  useful,  which  every  girl  should  know  how 


364          SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING 

to  make.  With  practice  it  is  possible  to  get  artistic  effects 
and  to  make  many  variations  of  these.  Cut  the  muslin 
about  three  inches  wide.  Always  tie  a  bow  when  possible, 
for  a  tied  bow  is  much  more  graceful  than  a  sewed  one. 

The  simple  cravat  bow  is  really  familiar  to  all.  Plait  the 
ribbon  a  distance  from  the  end  to  allow  for  a  streamer  or 
bow  end.  Hold  the  plaits  with  the  thumb  and  first  finger 
of  the  right  hand;  with  the  left  hand  measure  the  length 
of  the  first  loop ;  plait,  and  hold  all  plaits  with  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  left  hand.  Measure  and  plait  the  second  loop 
in  the  same  manner.  Tie  a  knot  over  the  plaits  by  twisting 
the  second  end  of  ribbon  around  them,  drawing  it  through 

this  twist  or  loop  you  have 
just  made,  from  the  direction 
it  was  taking  when  it  formed 
the  last  loop.  If  you  put  this 
end  through  the  twist  from 
the  opposite  direction,  no  knot 
will  be  made  and  your  bow  will 

FIG.  150.  —  Simple  cfavat  bow. 

tumble.     If  you   can   tie   the 

cravat  bow,  you  can  tie  every  bow  that  is  made.  The  pro- 
cess is  the  same,  but  the  difference  lies  in  the  number  and 
relative  lengths  of  loops  and  ends  (see  Fig.  150). 

For  the  uneven  bow,  measure  a  long  loop,  plait,  and  hold 
with  right  hand.  Opposite  this,  measure,  plait,  and  hold  a 
much  shorter  loop.  Parallel  with  the  first  loop  measure, 
plait,  and  hold  a  loop  a  little  shorter  than  the  first  one. 
Opposite,  measure  another  loop  a  little  shorter  than  loop  No. 
2.  Parallel  with  loop  No.  1  make  a  fifth  loop.  Continue  until 
you  have  as  full  a  bow  as  you  wish.  Usually  five  loops  are 
enough,  three  on  one  side  of  the  knot,  and  two  on  the  other. 
Tie  the  knot  over  the  plaits  you  are  holding  with  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  right  hand  as  you  did  for  the  cravat  bow. 


MILLINERY 


365 


Remember  to  bring  the  end  of  the  ribbon  through  the  twist 
from  the  same  direction  in  which  it  was  when  the  last  loop 
was  made  (see  Fig.  151). 

Rosettes.  —  Make  a  rosette  bow  as 
you  did  the  uneven  bow,  but  measure 

all  loops    so   they 

are  of  even  lengths. 

Have     the     same 

number  of  loops  on 

each    side    of    the 

knot.      Ten    or 

twelve    loops    will 

make  a  good-look- 
ing    rosette     bow 

(see  Fig.  152). 

The  rounding  rosette  is  made  in  the 
same  way  as  the  rosette  bow.  Draw  the  knot  very  tight 
and  pull  the  loops  over  it  so  as  to  conceal  the  knot  and  make 
the  bow  the  shape  of  a  pom-pom  or  half  sphere  (see  Fig.  153). 


FIG.    152.  —  The    ro- 
sette of  even  loops. 


FIG. 


151.  —  The    uneven 
bow. 


FIG.  153.  — The  round 
rosette. 


FIG.  154.— The  flat 
rosette. 


For  the  flat  rosette,  make  loops  as  for  rosette  bow,  but  do 
not  draw  the  knot  very  tight.  Arrange  loops  around  it  flat 
so  as  to  have  a  wheel  effect  (see  Fig.  154). 


366  SHELTER   AND   CLOTHING 

A  FEW  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TRIMMING 

1.  See  the  current  fashion  magazines. 

2.  Simplicity  in  trimming  is  always  most  pleasing.     A 
hat  is  spoiled  if  overtrimmed. 

3.  After  the  trimming  is  pinned  in  place,  hold  hat  at  a 
distance  and  criticize.     Notice  what  may  be  taken  off. 

4.  After  placing  the  trimming,  sit  or  stand  before  the 
mirror  and  adjust  trimming  to  suit  the  face  and  outline  of 
the  hair. 

5.  For  young  girls,  trimming  across  the  front  or  back 
may  be  becoming.     It  is  usually  placed  at  the  left  side, 
although  sometimes  on  the  right. 

6.  A  simple  trimming  is  made  by  rolling  a  twist  of  ribbon 
around  the  crown  and  finishing  with  a  bunch  of  flowers. 

7.  Wreaths  or  ribbon  flowers  can  be  made  in  class.     Scraps 
of  silk  or  ribbon  can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

8.  Wings  and  quills  are  suitable  for  young  girls.     A  quill 
is  often  trimming  enough  for  a  stiff  tailored  hat  and  can  be 
put  through  the  crown  and  brim  if  turned.     Wings  must  be 
carefully  placed  in  relation  to  lines  of  face  to  get  the  best 
effect,  and  should  be  pinned  in  position  and  tried. 

9.  Straw  hats,  if  of  tailored  finish,  can  be  trimmed  with 
straw  bows,  wings,  or  ornaments.     This  makes  an  economi- 
cal trimming  and  uses  up  the  odd  pieces  of  straw. 

10.  Ribbon   bows   are   always   suitable   for   young  girls' 
hats.     Every  girl  should  be  able  to  tie  the  simpler  styles. 
(See  directions.) 

11.  The  ability  to  trim  a  hat  artistically  is  a  gift.     One 
may  possess  it  and  not  be  aware.     Begin  to  practice  placing. 
Study  the  best  designs  in  shop  windows  and  magazines. 
Notice  the  colors  and  materials  combined. 

12.  Sew  trimmings  with  as  few  stitches  as  possible  to 


MILLINERY  367 

hold, — wings,  feathers,  and   flowers  securely  at  the  base 
but  tacked  loosely  with  invisible  stitches. 

13.  Large  black-headed  pins  are  useful  in  placing  trimming 
and  in  holding  until  sewed. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  knowledge  should  guide  one  in  selecting  a  hat?     What 
proportion  of  the  expenditure  for  clothing  should  be  spent  on  hats  ? 

2.  Make  and  trim  buckram  hat  for  some  one  at  home.     Perhaps 
you  have  some  old  silk  which  will  do  for  the  facing  of  the  brim. 
Try  to  keep  the  cost  as  low  as  possible. 

3.  Bring  in  three  bows  made  at  home,  of  old  ribbon,  or  cambric. 

4.  Describe  method  of  covering  a  wire  frame  with  crinoline. 

5.  Describe  the  principal  stitches  used  in  millinery. 

6.  Practice  tying  wires  in  preparation  for  frame  making. 


INDEX 


Adulteration  of  materials,  194-196. 

by  combination  of  fibers,  195. 

by  methods  of  finishing,  195. 

by  use  of  waste  materials,  195. 

by  weighting,  194. 

^Esthetic  education  in  the  home,  8-9. 
Aprons,  construction  of,  246. 
Architecture, 

colonial,  20. 

domestic,  18-26. 

English,  19-20. 

Italian,  20. 

principles  of,  18-29. 

Spanish,  20. 

Bathroom,  31,  52-53,  88. 

fixtures,  88. 

furnishing,  88. 

location,  31. 
Bedroom,  86. 
Bleaching  of 

cotton  thread,  113. 

cotton  yarn,  113. 

linen,  139,  142. 
Bric-a-brac,  84,  86. 

how  to  choose,  86. 

use  of,  86. 
Budgets  for  clothing, 

wardrobe    costing    $65    per    year, 
314-316. 

wardrobe    costing    $125   per  year, 

316-318. 
Building,  cost  of,  36. 

Candles  for  lighting,  43. 
Carding, 

cotton,  106-107. 

wool,  158. 
Care  of  clothing,  319-330. 

before  laundering,  321. 

during  off  seasons,  321. 

pressing,  320. 


removal  of  stains,  324-327. 

renovating  and  cleaning,  321-322. 

shoes,  320. 

suggestions  for  daily  use,  319-321. 
Carpet  manufacture,  161. 
Cellar,  32. 

how  to  construct,  32. 

importance  of,  32. 
Cesspools,  49. 
Chemical  composition  of 

cotton,  189. 

flax,  132,  190. 

silk,  190. 

wool,  188. 
Chemise,  237-238. 

construction  of,  250. 

pattern  from  shirt  waist  draft,  237. 
Cisterns,  46. 

Cleanliness  in  the  home,  4. 
Closets,  31. 
Clothing, 

budgets,  314-318. 

care  and  repair  of,  319-330. 

hygiene  of,  305-307. 
corsets,  305-306. 
hats,  305. 
rubbers,  305. 
shoes,  304-305. 
underwear,  307-310. 

purposes  of,  311-312. 

remodeling  of,  327-328. 
Coal  stoves,  38-39. 
Cocoons,  172-175. 

color  of,  172,  174. 

reeling  of,  174,  175. 
Colonial  architecture,  20. 
Color  in  decoration,  59-60. 

contrasting,  59. 

complementary,  59. 

gradation  of,  59. 

values,  59. 
Conductivity  of  materials,  191-193. 


369 


370 


INDEX 


Consumers'  League  label,  202. 

conditions  of  labor,  202-203. 
Corset  cover, 

construction  of,  253-255. 
pattern  of,  from  shirt  waist,  238. 
Corsets,  hygiene  of,  305-307. 
Cost  of  building,  36. 
Costume, 

design  in,  275,  276. 
Egyptian,  274. 
French,  279-286. 
Greek,  276-278. 
history  of,  274. 
Roman,  278. 
The  Renaissance  in 
16th  century,  280. 
17th  century,  281. 
18th  century,  282. 
19th  century,  283-286. 
Costume  design,  288. 
requirements  of,  289. 
adaptation  to  individual  of,  297. 
color  and  color  harmony  in,  294. 
dark  and  light  "value,"  292. 
lines  in  design,  292. 
the  silhouette  (lines),  290. 
unity,  289. 
Cotton,  97-129. 
appearance,  98. 
baling,  105. 
by-products,  106. 
composition  of,  189. 
culture  of  in  United  States,  102. 
ginning,  103-105. 
varieties,  98-102. 
where  grown,  98. 

Cotton  cloth  manufacture,  113-121. 
dyeing,  121. 
finishing  in,  120. 

industry  in  the  United  States,  128. 
mercerization,  121. 
pattern  making  for,  115,  116,  118. 
printing  of,  121. 
warping,  117. 
weaving,  121. 
Cotton  industry  in  the  United  States, 

128. 

Cotton  materials,  122-127. 
Cotton  yarn  manufacture,  106-110. 


bale  breaker,  106. 
carding,  106. 
combing,  107. 
doubling  and  drawing,  108. 
picker  machine,  106. 
spinning,  110. 
uses  of  yarn,  112. 
Curtains  and  draperies,  82-84. 
how  to  hang,  83. 
materials  used  for,  82. 
reasons  for  use,  83. 

Darning,  329. 

Decoration  of  underwear,  210-215. 
bias  bands  as,  215. 
fancy  stitches  as,  213-215. 
tucking  on,  213. 
use  of  entre  deux,  211. 
use  of  lace,  211. 
whipped  ruffles  on,  212. 
Decoration,  principles  of  home,  57- 

60. 

appropriateness,  57. 
color,  59. 

effect  of  environment,  56. 
good  "lines"  58. 
'simplicity,  57. 
unity,  57. 
Design  in  costume,  288-289. 

adaptation  to  individual  of,  297. 
color  and  cdlor  harmony  in,  294. 
dark  and  light  "value,"  292-294. 
lines  in  design,  290. 
requirements  of,  289. 
the  silhouette  (lines),  290. 
unity,  289. 

Disposal  of  waste,  48-53. 
Doilies,  crocheted  edges,  272. 
Domestic  Architecture,  18-26. 
Doorways,  22,  30. 

architectural  effect,  22. 
for  exit,  30. 
for  ventilation,  30. 
Drafting  of  patterns,  219-243. 

chemise  from  shirt  waist,  237-238. 
corset  cover  from  shirt  waist,  238. 
night  dress  from  shirt  waist,  234- 

237. 
peplum  from  shirt  waist,  238-239. 


INDEX 


371 


Drafting  of  patterns, 

of  drawers,  228-230. 

of  kimono  nightdress,  226-228. 

of  shirt  waist,  220-223. 

of  shirt  waist  sleeve,  234. 

skirts,  239-242. 
four  gored,  242. 
five  gored,  242. 
six  gored,  240-241. 

tools  for,  226. 
Drainage  systems,  49-53. 
Drawers,  249-250. 

construction  of,  249-251. 

pattern  of,  228-230. 
Dress, 

adaptation  of,  311. 

appropriateness,  300. 

color  in,  294-296. 

design  of  costume,  288. 

economics  of,  311-318. 

fashion  in,  299. 

hygiene  of,  303-310. 

importance  of  the  study  of  modern, 
288. 

jewelry,  301-302. 

requirements  of,  289. 

simplicity  in,  299. 
Dresses,  construction  of,  322-347. 

gymnasium  suit,  337. 

middy  blouse,  333. 

Norfolk  jacket  wTaist,  342. 

one  piece  dress,  334-336,  342-346. 

shirt  waist,  lingerie,  334. 

tailored  shirt  waist,  338-342. 

tailored  skirt,  336. 

Dressing  sacque,  construction  of,  253. 
Dyeing,  160. 

cotton  thread,  113. 

cotton  yarn,  113. 

Economics  of  dress,  311-318. 
allowance,  312. 
budgets,  313-318. 
darning,  329. 
patching,  328. 

ready  vs.  home  made  dress,  313. 
remodeling,  327. 

wardrobe    costing    $65    per    year, 
314-316. 


wardrobe  costing  $125   per   year, 

316-318. 
Education  in  the  home,  6-8. 

intellectual  and  aesthetic,  8. 

physical,  6-7. 

religious,  8. 

Egyptian  costume,  274-276. 
Electricity  for  lighting,  44. 
Embroideries,  257-260. 

Chinese,  259. 

Indian,  259. 

Persian,  259. 

Turkish,  259. 
Embroidery,  257. 

application  of,  266-273. 

equipment  for,  266. 

history  of,  257-260. 
Embroidery  stitches,  260-266. 

how  to  make  them,  260-266. 

blanket,  260. 
scalloping,  261. 

chain,  260. 

couching  and  applique,  264,  266. 

cross,  262. 

featherstitching,  214,  261. 

French  knots,  262. 

hem,  264. 

herringbone  or  catch,  263. 

lazy  daisy,  262. 

outline,  262. 

satin,  263. 

English  architecture,  19. 
Entertainment  in  the  home,  12—13. 
Entre  deux  in  undergarments,  211. 

between  rolled  edges,  211. 

use  in  seams,  211. 
Ethics  of  purchase  of  underwear,  202. 

conditions  of  labor,  202. 

Fashion,  299-302. 

selection  of,  299. 

simplicity,  299. 

study  of  history  of,  274. 
Featherstitching,  214,  216-262. 
Fibers,  principal  vegetable, 

coir,  147. 

cotton,  97-129. 

flax,  131-147. 

hemp,  146. 


372 


INDEX 


Fibers,  principal  vegetable, 

jute,  146. 

pina,  147. 

ramie,  146. 
Filters,  water,  47. 
Filtration  plants,  47. 
Fire-escapes.  32. 
Fireplaces,  37-38. 
Fixtures,  bathroom,  88. 
Flax,  131-147. 

antiquity  of,  133. 

appearance  of,  132,  190. 

botany  of,  131. 

breaking  of,  133. 

by-products,  133. 

composition  of,  190. 

culture  of,  132. 

retting  of,  132. 

rippling  of,  132. 

scutching,  133. 

varieties  of,  131. 

where  grown,  131. 
Floors,  67-69. 

structure  of,  34. 

wood,  hardwood,  67-68. 
Floor  covering,  67-72. 

carpet,  70. 

linoleum,  69. 

rugs,  71-72. 
oriental,  72. 
rag,  72. 

Franklin  stove,  38. 
French  costume,  279-286. 
Furnace,  hot  air,  40. 
Furnishing  of  the  home, 

bathroom,  88. 

bedroom,  86-88. 

dining  room,  88-90. 

functions  of,  55. 

halls,  94. 

kitchen,  95. 

living  room,  90-92. 

reception  room,  92-93. 
Furniture,  72-83. 

"cottage"  77. 

English  furniture  makers,  75-76. 

how  to  choose,  73-75. 

mission,  77. 

willow,  79. 


Gas,  lights  43. 

stoves,  40. 

Greek  and  Roman  costume,  276-279. 
Gymnasium  suit, 

constuction  of  bloomers,  337. 

construction  of  waist,  337. 

Hair,  305. 

arrangement  of,  349. 

bows  on,  349. 

hats  in  relation  to,  305. 

hygiene,  305. 
Hallways,  31.  . 
Harmony  in  the  home,  4,  5. 
Hats, 

bow  making,  363-365. 

buckram  frame,  350-356. 
covering  of,  350-356. 
making  of,  350-354. 

hygiene  of,  305. 

lining  of,  356. 

suggestions  for  trimming,  366. 

wire  frames,  357-362. 

covering  of,  361. 

making  of,  337-361. 

straw  sewing,  362. 

Heating  the  house,  37-41. 

fireplaces,  37-38. 

furnace,  hot  air,  40. 

hot  water,  40-41. 

steam,  40-41. 
History 

of     embroidery,     suggestions     for 
study,  257-260. 

of  costume,  274-286. 
Home,  the, 

atmosphere  of,  1,  2. 

decoration  of,  55. 

education  in  the,  5,  9. 

entertainment  in,  2,  3. 

furnishing  of,  12. 

influence  of,  2,  5. 

mistress  of,  9-11. 

sanitation  in,  4—5. 
Home  decoration,  principles  of,  55— 

60. 
Home  furnishing,  functions  of,  55. 

aesthetic,  55. 

economic,  56. 


INDEX 


373 


Homemaker,  the  ideal,  11-12. 
Homemaking,  the  aim  of,  4—5. 
Honesty  in  home  ideals,  3. 
Hot  water  heating,  40. 
House,  the,  15-29. 

additions  to,  22. 

apartment  and  block,  17. 

architecture  of,  18—25. 

color  of,  25. 

exposure  of,  26. 

inner  finish,  34. 

materials  for,  21,  33. 

plans  of,  30-32. 

requirements  in,  15-17. 

single,  the,  18. 

structure  of,  32-35. 

surroundings,  17. 
Hygiene  of  clothing,  303-310. 

corsets,  305. 

hats,  305. 

rubbers,  305. 

shoes,  304. 

underwear,  307-310. 
Hygroscopic  power  of  material,  191- 
193. 

Ice  supply,  48. 

Ideals  for  homemaking,  3-5. 

cleanliness,  4. 

godliness,  4. 

harmony,  4. 

honesty,  3. 

orderliness,  4. 

right  living,  3. 

simplicity,  3. 

unity,  1,  4. 
Italian  architecture,  20. 

Jacquard  weaving,  118-120. 

Kitchen,  31. 

convenience  to  dining  room,  31. 
ventilation  of,  31. 

Lace,  208,  211,  323. 
for      underwear,     as      decoration, 

211. 

mitering  of,  214. 
renovation  of,  323. 


Laundry  bags,  construction  of,  246. 
Linen  cloth  manufacture,  137-143. 

finishing  in,  139-142. 
beetling,  142. 
calendering,  142. 
rub  boards,  142. 

pattern  making  in,  138,  140,  141. 

use  of  Jacquard  loom,  139,  140. 

warping,  138. 

weaving,  137. 
Linen    industry    in    United    States, 

144. 

Linen  materials,  145. 
Linen  yarn  manufacture,  133-137. 

hackling,  135. 

roughing  in,  135. 

spinning : 
wet,  137. 
dry,  137. 

spreading,  136. 

use  of  flax  wheel  in,  134. 

uses  of  yarn,  134,  143. 
Lighting  the  house,  42-44. 

candles,  43. 

electricity,  44. 

gas,  43. 

lamps,  43. 

Living  room,  the,  90-92. 
Loom,  the,  114-116. 

hand,  114-115. 

harnessing  of,  116,  118. 
heddles,  116. 

inventors  of,  116. 

Jacquard,  118. 

parts  of  colonial,  115. 

power,  116. 

primitive,  114. 

spooling  for,  117. 

warping  for,  117. 

Manufacture  of 

cotton  cloth,  113-121. 
cotton  thread,  112-113. 
cotton  yarn,  106-110. 
linen  cloth,  137-143. 
linen  thread,  143-144. 
linen  yarn,  133-137. 
woolen  and  worsted    cloth,    159— 
164. 


374 


INDEX 


Manufacture  of 

woolen    and    worsted    yarn,    151- 

159. 
Materials,  adulteration  of,  194-196. 

conductivity  of,  191-193. 

hygroscopic  power  of,  191—193. 

tensile  strength  of,  191-193. 
Materials, 

common  cotton,  122-127. 

common  linen,  145. 

common  silk,  183-185. 

common  woolen,  165-168. 
Mercerization  of  cotton  cloth,  121. 
Microscopical  appearance  of 

cotton,  98,  189. 

flax,  132,  190. 

silk,  172,  190. 

wool,  148,  188. 
Middy  blouse,  333-334. 
Millinery,  348-367. 

bow  making,  363-365. 

making  of  hats,  350-363. 

selection  of  hats,  348-350. 

suggestions  for  trimming,  366-367. 
Mistress  of  the  home,  9. 

common  sense,  11. 

foresight,  10. 

health  of,  10. 

self-control,  10. 

sympathy  of,  10. 

tact  of,  10. 

training  of,  10. 
Moth,  silk,  171-172. 

Bombyx  mori,  171-172. 

wild,  171-172. 

Nightdress,  255-256. 

construction  of,  248-249. 
pattern  of  kimono,  226-228. 
with  sleeves,  237. 

Oil  stoves,  40. 

Order  in  the  home,  4,  5. 

Patching,  328,  329. 
Patterns,  217-243. 

chemise  from  shirt  waist,  237. 

corset  cover  from  shirt  waist,  238. 

drafting  of,  226. 


drawers,  228. 

interpreting,  219. 

kimono  nightdress,  226. 

measurements  for,  217. 

nightdress  from  shirt  waist,  234. 

peplum,  238. 

selection  of  commercial,  218. 

shirt  waist,  230. 

testing  and  altering,  220. 
Petticoat, 

construction  of,  251. 

pattern  of,  239. 

sateen  or  silk,  239. 

Physical   education  in  the  home,  6, 
7. 

cleanliness,  7. 

exercise,  6. 

food,  6. 

fresh  air,  6,  7. 

water,  6. 

work,  7. 

Pictures  and    picture    moldings,   84, 
85. 

framing  of,  85. 

hanging  of,  85. 

selection  of,  84,  85. 
Pillow  cases,  making  of,  245. 
Plumbing,  50,  53. 
Porch  cushions,  268. 
Problems  in  seeing,  245-256. 

hand    and    machine    made,    248— 
253. 

machine  made,  245-247. 

Ramie,  uses  of,  197. 
Reception  room,  the,  92,  93. 
Religious    education    in    the    home, 
8. 

character  building,  8. 

reverence,  8. 
Remodeling,  327. 
Rental,  35. 
Repair  of  clothing,  327-330. 

darning,  329. 

dyeing  and  tinting,  322. 

mending,  327. 

patching,  328. 

remodeling,  327. 

renovating  and  cleaning,  321. 


INDEX 


375 


Richards,  Ellen  H.  (Frontispiece) . 

mottoes  for  right  living,  13. 
Roof,  the,  19,  22,  34,  35. 

architectural  importance  of,  19-22, 

gambrel,  21. 

hip,  19-21. 

lean-to,  21. 

materials  for,  34,  35. 
Rooms, 

arrangement  of,  30. 

convenience  of  exit,  30. 

economy  of  space,  30,  31. 

wall  space  in,  31. 

Sewage  disposal,  48-53. 

city  and  town,  49-50. 

farm,  48,  49. 
Sewerage  system,  51. 
Sewing,  200-215. 

hand  vs.  machine,  200,  201,  203. 
Sewing  machine,  204-208. 

care  in  use  of,  207. 

kinds  of,  204. 

practice  on,  206. 

study  of  parts  before  practice,  205. 
Sheep,  148-151. 

shearing,  151. 

raising,  148. 
Shirt  waist,  333-336. 

construction  of  lingerie,  334. 

construction  of  tailored,  338-342. 

pattern  of,  220-238. 
Shoddy,  use  of,  164. 
Shoes, 

care  of,  320. 

hygiene  of,  304-305. 
Silk,  171-190. 

antiquity  of,  172. 

appearance  of,  172. 

artificial,  186. 

composition  of,  190. 

cost  of,  175. 

culture  of,  172. 

raw,  175. 

reeled,  174. 

source  of,  171. 

varieties  of,  171. 

waste,  179. 

where  grown,  171. 


Silk  cloth  manufacture,  178-179. 

adulteration  in,  180. 

dyeing,  178-180,  182. 

finishing,  182. 

pattern  making  in,  182. 

use  of  Jacquard  loom  in,  178,  181. 

warping,  178. 

weaving,  182. 

weighting,  180,  182. 
Silk  industry  in  the  United    States, 

186,  187. 

Silk  materials,  183-185. 
Silk  moth,  172. 

Bombyx  mori,  171,  172. 

wild,  171,  172. 

Silk  ribbon,  manufacture  of,  179. 
Silk  worms,  172. 

classification  of,  171. 

culture  of,  172,  174. 
Silk  yarn  manufacture,  175. 

dyeing,  179. 

opening  of  hanks,  175. 

throwing,  175. 

use  of  organzine,  176. 

use  of  tram,  176. 

uses  of,  176. 

winding,  176. 
Simplicity  of  living,  3,  4. 
Skirt  patterns,  239-242. 

five  gored,  242. 

four  gored,  242. 

foundation,  239,  240. 

six  gored,  240,  241. 
Skirts, 

construction      of      tailored,      336, 
337. 

patterns  of,  239,  242. 
Spanish  architecture,  20. 
Spinning,  110,  113. 

distaff,  110. 

flax  wheel,  110. 

great  wheel,  110. 

inventors  of  machinery  for,  111. 

mule  spinning  machine,  111. 

of  flax,  135,  137. 

ring  spinning  machine,  112. 

spindle,  110. 

Stains  on  clothing,  removal  of,  324. 
Stairs,  31. 


376 


INDEX 


Steam  heating,  40,  41. 

Stocking  bags,  construction  of,  246. 

Stoves,  38-40. 

coal,  38. 

Franklin,  38. 

gas,  40. 

oil,  40. 

wood,  39. 
Structure  of  house,  32-35. 

cellar,  32. 

roof,  34. 

walls,  34. 

floors,  34. 

Table  runner,  270. 
Tests  for  fibers,  196-199. 

burning,  198. 

chemical,  196,  197. 

microscopical,  198. 

washing,  198,  199. 
Textiles,  97-199. 

comparison  of  fibers,  188. 

reason  for  study  of,  188. 
Thread  manufacture,  112,  113. 

bleaching,  113. 

cotton,  112. 

dyeing,  113. 

linen,  143. 

reeling,  113. 

silk,  176. 

twisting,  113. 
Towels,  268-269. 

guest,  269. 

initial  on,  269. 
Trap,  the  S,  50-51. 
Traveling  cases,  construction  of,  246. 
Tucking,  213. 

Undergarments,  200-215. 

conditions  under  which  made,  202. 

construction  of,  244. 

cutting  out  of,  244. 

fitting  of,  245. 

flat  trimmed,  210. 

hand  vs.  machine  made,  201. 

hygiene  of,  307. 

materials  of  which  made,  208. 

trimming  for,  210. 

use  of  entre  deux  on,  211. 


Underwear,  200. 

hygiene  of,  307-309. 
Unity  in  the  Home,  1-4. 

Ventilation,  37,  41,  42. 
Ventilating  systems,  41. 

Walls  of  house,  34. 

materials  used,  34. 

space  for  furniture,  31. 

structure  of,  34. 
Wall  papers,  64-67. 

borders  and  friezes,  66. 

ceiling  papers,  67. 

figured,  64-66. 

plain,  64. 

striped,  66. 
Walls,  the  covering  of,  60-67. 

burlap,  60. 

exposure  of,  according  to,  62. 

location    of    room,    according    to- 
61. 

paint,  60. 

paper,  60. 

sanitation,  60. 

shape  of  room,  according  to,  62. 

size  of  room,  according  to,  62. 

use  of  room,  according  to,  62. 
Water,  45-48. 

contamination  of,  45,  46. 

purification  of,  45-46. 

sources  of,  45. 
Water  closet,  53. 
Water  niters,  47. 
Weaving,  113-120. 

pattern  in  variations  of,  116-118. 

primitive,  114,  115. 

process  of 

battening,  115. 
picking,  115. 
shedding,  115. 

use  of  shuttle  in,  115,  116. 
Wells,  46. 

Whipping  of  ruffles,  212. 
Windows,  22-30. 

architectural  effect,  22. 

care  in  placing,  30. 

for  ventilation,  30. 
Wood  stoves,  39. 


INDEX 


377 


Woodwork,  the,  69-70. 
Wool, 

appearance  of,  148,  188. 
composition  of,  188. 
culture  of,  151. 
source  of,  149. 
varieties  of,  150,  151. 
where  grown,  148. 
yolk  in,  151,  152. 

Woolen    and    worsted    cloth    manu- 
facture, 159. 
finishing, 

burling,  162. 
dyeing,  160. 
fulling,  162. 
mending,  162. 
shearing,  163. 
harnessing,  160. 
pattern  in,  160. 


warping,  159. 

weaving,  160. 

Woolen    and    worsted    yarn    manu- 
facture, 

carbonization  in,  154. 

carding,  158. 

combing,  158. 

difference  between,  156,  158,  159. 

drying,  153,  154. 

gilling,  158. 

sorting,  151. 

spinning,  158,  159. 

substitutes  in,  155,  156. 

tops,  preparation  of,  158. 

uses  of,  158,  163,  164. 

washing,  152,  154. 
Wool  industry  in  the  United  States, 

169. 
Wool  materials,  165-168. 


Chemistry  and  its   Relations  to   Daily  Life 

BY  LOUIS  KAHLENBERG  AND  EDWIN  B.  HART 

Professors  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin 

Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  3Q3  pages.     List  price,  $1.2$ 


If  the  contributions  of  chemical  science  to  modern  civilization 
were  suddenly  swept  away,  what  a  blank  there  would  be  !  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  every  person  were  acquainted  with  the  elements  of 
chemistry  and  its  bearing  upon  our  daily  life,  what  an  uplift  human 
efficiency  would  receive  !  It  is  to  further  this  latter  end  that  this 
book  has  been  prepared.  Designed  particularly  for  use  by  students 
of  agriculture  and  home  economics  in  secondary  schools,  its  use  will 
do  much  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  farm  and  the  home.  In 
the  language  of  modern  educational  philosophy,  it  "  functions  in  the 
life  of  the  pupil." 

Useful  facts  rather  than  mere  theory  have  been  emphasized, 
although  the  theory  has  not  been  neglected.  The  practical  char- 
acter of  the  work  is  indicated  by  the  following  selected  chapter 
headings  : 

II.  The  Composition  and  Uses  of  Water* 

IV.  The  Air,  Nitrogen,  Nitric  Acid,  and  Ammonia. 

IX.  Carbon  and  Its  Compounds. 

XII.  Paints,  Oils,  and  Varnishes. 

XIIL  Leather,  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  and  Rubber* 

XV.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

XVL  Farm  Manure. 

XX.  Milk  and  Its  Products. 

XXI.  Poisons  for  Farm  and  Orchard  Pests. 


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Practical  Physics 


By   N.    HENRY   BLACK   of  the   Roxbury   Latin   School. 
Boston,  and  Professor  HARVEY  N.  DAVIS   of  Harvard 

University. 

Cloth,  isrno,  illustrated,  488  pages.     List  price,  $r.2j 

"  In  preparing  this  book,"  say  the  authors  in  the  Preface,  "  we  have  tried  to 
select  only  those  topics  which  are  of  vital  interest  to  young  people,  whether  or 
not  they  intend  to  continue  the  study  of  physics  in  a  college  course. 

"  In  particular,  we  believe  that  the  chief  value  of  the  informational  side  of 
such  a  course  lies  in  its  applications  to  the  machinery  of  daily  life.  Everybody 
needs  to  know  something  about  the  working  of  electrical  machinery,  optical 
instruments,  ships,  automobiles,  and  all  those  labor-saving  devices,  such  as 
vacuum  cleaners,  fireless  cookers,  pressure  cookers,  and  electric  irons,  which 
are  found  in  many  American  homes.  We  have,  therefore,  drawn  as  much  of 
our  illustrative  material  as  possible  from  the  common  devices  in  modern  life. 
We  see  no  reason  why  this  should  detract  in  the  least  from  the  educational 
value  of  the  study  of  physics,  for  one  can  learn  to  think  straight  just  as  well  by 
thinking  about  an  electrical  generator,  as  by  thinking  about  a  Geissler  tube.  .  . . 

"  To  understand  any  machine  clearly,  the  student  must  have  clearly  in  mind 
the  fundamental  principles  involved.  Therefore,  although  we  have  tried  to 
begin  each  new  topic,  however  short,  with  some  concrete  illustration  familiar 
to  young  people,  we  have  proceeded,  as  rapidly  as  seemed  wise,  to  a  deduction 
of  the  general  principle.  Then,  to  show  how  to  make  use  of  this  principle,  we 
have  discussed  other  practical  applications.  We  have  tried  to  emphasize  still 
further  the  value  of  principles,  that  is,  generalizations,  in  science,  by  summariz- 
ing at  the  end  of  each  chapter  the  principles  discussed  in  that  chapter.  In 
these  summaries  we  have  aimed  to  make  the  phrasing  brief  and  vivid  so  that 
it  may  be  easily  remembered  and  easily  used." 

The  new  and  noteworthy  features  of  the  book  are  the  admirable 
selection  of  familiar  material  used  to  develop  and  apply  the  principles 
of  physical  science,  the  exceptionally  clear  and  forceful  exposition, 
showing  the  hand  of  the  master  teacher,  the  practical,  interesting, 
thought-provoking  problems,  and  the  superior  illustrations. 


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Botany  for  Secondary  Schools 

BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Of  Cornell  University 

Cloth,  izmo,  illustrated,  460  pages.     List  price, 

It  is  not  essential  nor  desirable  that  everybody  should  become  a  botanist 
but  it  is  inevitable  that  people  shall  be  interested  in  the  more  human  side 
of  plant  and  animal  life.  We  are  interested  in  the  evident  things  of  natural 
history,  and  the  greater  our  interest  in  such  things ,  the  wider  is  our  horizon 
and  the  deeper  our  hold  on  life. 

The  secondary  school  could  not  teach  botanical  science  if  it  would ;  lack  of 
time  and  the  immaturity  of  the  pupils  forbid  it.  But  it  can  encourage  a 
love  of  nature  and  an  interest  in  plant  study ;  indeed,  it  can  originate  these, 
and  it  does.  Professor  Bailey's  Botany  has  been  known  to  do  it. 

In  the  revision  of  this  book  that  has  just  been  made,  the  effective  simplicity 
of  the  nature  teacher  and  the  genuine  sympathy  of  the  nature  lover  are  as 
successfully  blended  as  they  were  in  the  former  book.  Bailey's  Botany  for 
Secondary  Schools  recognizes  four  or  five  general  life  principles:  that  no 
two  natural  things  are  alike ;  that  each  individual  has  to  make  and  main- 
tain its  place  through  struggle  with  its  fellows ;  that  "  as  the  twig  is  bent 
the  tree  inclines";  that  "like  produces  like,"  and  so  on.  From  these 
simple  laws  and  others  like  them  Professor  Bailey  proceeds  to  unfold  a 
wonderful  story  of  plant  individuals  that  have  improved  upon  their  race 
characteristics,  of  plant  communities  that  have  adopted  manners  from 
their  neighbors,  of  features  and  characteristics  that  have  been  lost  by 
plants  because  of  changed  conditions  of  life  or  surroundings.  The  story 
vibrates  with  interest. 

The  book  is,  moreover,  perfectly  organized  along  the  logical  lines  of 
approach  to  a  scientific  subject.  Four  general  divisions  of  material  insure 
its  pedagogical  success : 

PART      I. — The  Plant  Itself; 

PART    II.  —  The  Plant  in  Its  Relation  to  Environment  and  to  Man; 

PART  III.—  Histology,  or  the  Minute  Structure  of  Plants ; 

PART  IV.— The  Kinds  of  Plants,  including  a  Flora  of  130  pages. 


THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 

BOSTON  CHICAGO  ATLANTA  DALLAS  SAN  FRANCISCO 


Studies  in  Literature 


BY  FREDERICK    MONROE   TISDEL 

Assistant  Professor  of  English  in  the  University  of  Missouri. 

Cloiht  I2mo.,  illustrated,  333  pages,  list  price  $.90 

In  Part  I  of  this  book  the  author  introduces  the  student  to  more  than 
twenty  standard  English  classics,  giving  in  connection  with  each  a  brief 
explanatory  introduction,  suggestions  for  study  and  topics  for  oral  and 
written  discussion.  These  classics  are  grouped  with  respect  to  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  literature  which  they  represent, — epic,  drama,  essay, 
novel,  etc.,  and  there  is  a  brief  exposition  of  the  type.  The  result  is 
that  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  individual  masterpiece  and  the  type 
with  its  characteristics  are  inseparably  connected. 

Part  II  consists  of  a  brief  but  masterly  survey  of  English  literature. 
The  book  as  a  whole  serves  to  systematize  and  unify  the  study  of  sec- 
ondary school  literature,  —  a  most  desirable  end. 

Professor  E.  A.  Cross,  State  Teachers  College,  Greeley,  Colo.  "  It  meets 
with  my  heartiest  approval.  It  is  brief,  considers  all  the  writers  high  school 
students  need  to  know,  touches  the  interesting  features  in  the  lives  and  works 
of  these  men,  —  about  all  you  could  want  it  to  do." 

Mr.  John  B.  Opdycke,  English  Department  of  the  High  School  of  Commerce, 
New  York  City.  "  I  like  it  very  much  indeed.  It  has  just  enough  in  its  re- 
view of  the  history  of  English  literature,  and  its  treatment  of  the  classics  is 
restrained  and  dignified.  So  far  as  I  have  seen,  this  is  the  only  book  that 
combines  the  two  in  one  volume.  I  am  all  against  the  use  of  an  abstract 
History  of  English  Literature  in  the  high  school  and  I  am  all  in  favor  of  put- 
ting into  the  hands  of  the  students  some  book  that  analyzes  classics  fully  and 
yet  with  restraint.  This  book  seems  to  have  combined  the  two  in  just  the 
right  proportions  and  treated  them  in  just  the  right  manner." 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Ave.  New  York  City 

Boston  Chicago  Atlanta  Dallas  San  Francisco 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


